direito do trabalho - apontamentos sobre a estática do contrato do trabalho

7/22/2019 Direito do Trabalho - Apontamentos sobre a Estática do Contrato do Trabalho

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Mfrbftd md ]rk`khjd - Drkh LMRG^

Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik ;

Gkpåtuhd F\ ‗ Gditrktd Fimfvfmukh mb ]rk`khjd (Bstëtfgk)

;. Idãòbs Cbrkfs

F ‗ Idãòbs. Kiëhfsb mk Mblfifãçd Hbckh mb G]

D krt. ;>¿ md G] 0>>7, iuek hfijk qub vfijk mb euftd kitbs, mblfifk Gditrktd mb

]rk`khjd gded kqubhb pbhd qukh uek pbssdk sb d`rfck, ebmfkitb rbtrfùfãçd, k

prbstkr k suk kgtfvfmkmb k dutrk du dutrks pbssdks, sd` k kutdrfmkmb b mfrbgãçd

mbstks.

D krt. ;;¿ md G] 0>>6, gde mfsgutåvbh sbitfmd mb dpdrtuifmkmb, rbsdhvbu pýr be gkusk

k mblfifãçd, mfzbimd kcdrk? Gditrktd mb ]rk`khjd æ kqubhb pbhd qukh uek pbssdk sb

d`rfck, ebmfkitb rbtrfùfãçd, k prbstkr k suk kgtfvfmkmb k dutrk du dutrks pbssdks, id

àe`ftd mb drckifzkãçd b sd` k kutdrfmkmb mbstks.

Mbvb idtkr-sb k su`stftufãçd mk bxprbssçd ‘mfrbgãçd― pbhk mb ‘id àe`ftd mk

drckifzkãçd―. Gde bstk ÿhtfek bxprbssçd ebigfdik-sb khcd qub lfcurkvk oë gded

prbsuiãçd du fimågfd md gditrktd mb trk`khjd, iuek hfijk mdutrfiërfk qub më rbhbvd î

fisbrãçd ik drckifzkãçd beprbskrfkh.

Wçd khcuis ds kspbgtds be qub ids pdmbeds ldgkr pkrk kikhfskr k idãçd hbckh d

gditrktd mb trk`khjd.

Gditrktd

D \åiguhd Hk`drkh gded Pbhkãçd Gditrktukh mb Mfrbftd ^rfvkmd? D gditrktd mbtrk`khjd, biqukitd gditrktd, æ ue ibc÷gfd ouråmfgd `fhktbrkh, fstd æ, ue kgdrmdvfiguhktfvd ldrekmd pdr muks mbghkrkãòbs mb vditkmb gditrkpdstks, be qub gkmkue mds gditrkbitbs prdssbcub fitbrbssbs mflbrbitbs b ktæ dpdstds, eks qub, ktrkvæs mdgditrktd gjbcke k uek rbcuhkebitkãçd gdeue b, pdrtkitd, k ue rbsuhtkmduiftërfd.

D gditrktd gdistftuf kssfe d fistruebitd ouråmfgd ktrkvæs md qukh ks pkrtbs jkredifzke

ds fitbrbssbs gditrkpdstds mb qub sçd pdrtkmdrks, kgdrmkimd iks gdimfãòbs pdr sf

ouhckmks ibgbssërfks.

Kd beprbckmdr fitbrbssk gdisbcufr k ekfdr qukitfmkmb b k ebhjdr qukhfmkmb

mb trk`khjd pdssåvbh gditrk k ebidr rbtrfùfãçd

D trk`khjkmdr prdgurk gdisbcufr k ekfdr rbtrfùfãçd be trdgk md sbu trk`khjd

^rbstkãçd mk Ktfvfmkmb

D G] tbe pdr dòbgtfvd k trdgk mk kgtfvfmkmb du md sbrvfãd pdr mfijbfrd (rbtrfùfãçd).Wbimd be`drk dòbgtd md gditrktd qubr k rbtrfùfãçd qubr k kgtfvfmkmb (prbstkãçd




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik 0

md trk`khjd), bstk ÿhtfek, iuek edmkhfmkmb tåpfgk, gdistftuf d trkãd gkrkgtbråstfgd md

gditrktd mb trk`khjd.

Md krtfcd ;;¿ md G] rbsuhtke ks d`rfckãòbs prfigfpkfs qub gkrkgtbrfzke d gditrktd? md

hkmd md trk`khjkmdr, k prbstkãçd mb uek kgtfvfmkmb (fitbhbgtukh du ekiukh ‗

ktfvfmkmb juekik), sd` k kutdrfmkmb b id àe`ftd mk drckifzkãçd md beprbckmdr1

pdr `kimk mbstb ÿhtfed, k d`rfckãçd mb pkckr uek rbtrfùfãçd.

Wu`drmfikãçd Ouråmfgk

K su`drmfikãçd gded rblhbxd mk fitbcrkãçd md trk`khjd ik drckifzkãçd prdmutfvk? k

kgtfvfmkmb prbvfstk ik hbf æ mbsbepbijkmk «id àe`ftd mk drckifzkãçd b sd`

kutdrfmkmb± mk pbssdk k qube æ prbstkmk? æ d qub sb gjkek kgtfvfmkmb prbstkmk

be rbcfeb mb su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk. D vdgëùhd ‘mfrbgãçd― içd gdistk oë, kd

gditrërfd md qub sugbmfk gde d G] 0>>7, mk idãçd hbckh. Gditumd, kpbskr mbstk

bhfefikãçd, ekitïe-sb fitkgtds ds pdmbrbs pktrdikfs mb mfrbgãçd b gdrrbhktfvks

sftukãòbs pkssfvks md trk`khjkmdr mbpbimbitb, mbvbmdr mb d`bmfïigfk, suèbtfmd î

kutdrfmkmb, gditrdhkmd b mfsgfphfikmd, ids tbreds mb dutrks mfspdsfãòbs md G]. D

beprbckmdr mfrfcb, mblfib, bspbgflfgk, bigkefijk k prbstkãçd md trk`khjkmdr, tkitd

be k`strkgtd (rbcuhkebitkimd) gded be gdigrbtd (mkimd drmbis).]ke`æe sd`rb

bhk fitbrvæe gdistkitbebitb, kitbs, murkitb b mbpdfs mk suk rbkhfzkãçd, gditrdhkimd-

k b lfsgkhfzkimd-k, suèbtbimd qukfsqubr mbsvfds id gueprfebitd k ue rbcfeb mb

skiãòbs prfvkmks (skiãòbs mfsgfphfikrbs). ^dr dutrd hkmd k kgtfvfmkmb æ prbstkmk id

àe`ftd mk drckifzkãçd md beprbckmdr.

Gde fstd sb prbtbimb mfzbr qub k kgtfvfmkmb be gkusk æ bigkefijkmk pkrk ds lfis

prdmutfvds mb`kfxd mk kutdrfmkmb mk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk, fstd æ, pdr dutrbe, qub

k drckifzk b gdiouck, pbhks suks drmbis, gde ds dutrds lkgtdrbs prdmutfvds mb qub

mfspòb. K mfspdif`fhfmkmb mk bibrcfk hk`drktfvk, k lkvdr mb qube æ tftuhkr mds lkgtdrbs

prdmutfvds, gdistftuf uek bxfcïigfk mk pr÷prfk sdgfbmkmb fimustrfkh edmbrik.

K su`drmfikãçd surcb gded rblhbxd mk fimbtbrefikãçd mk prbstkãçd mb trk`khjd?

bstë hfckmk î rbhktfvk cbibrkhfmkmb b figdigrbtfzkãçd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd? pdr

ikturbzk, id gditrktd mb trk`khjd, d trk`khjkmdr içd prdebtb mbsbepbijkr bstk du

kqubhk kgtfvfmkmb, gdigrbtkebitb b bxkustfvkebitb mbsgrftk, eks ue tfpd cbiærfgd

mb kgtfvfmkmb hk`drktfvk. Ik vbrmkmb, içd bstçd bspbgflfgkebitb prbvfstds ids

gditrktds tdmds kqubhbs kgtds gde qub d prbstkmdr mb trk`khjd blbgtfvk k suk

prbstkãçd, ibe, khfës, sbrfk pdssåvbh qub mbhb gdistkssbe tdmks ks dpbrkãòbs, id

pdrebidr mk suk bxbguãçd tægifgk, qub k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk prbtbimb b qub dtrk`khjkmdr bstë d`rfckmd k bxbrgbr. ^dr fssd sb mfz qub d gditrktd mb trk`khjd æ





«bxpdstd kd luturd±, ibhb içd pdmbimd bstkr tumd mbtbrefikmd, kpbiks sb rblbrfimd

ue tfpd cbiærfgd mb kgtfvfmkmb.

Drk, k mbtbrefikãçd k gkmk edebitd mks tkrblks k prbstkr pbrtbigb, id gditrktd mb

trk`khjd, kd dutrd gditrkbitb, qub içd ks mbsbivdhvb, eks kpbiks drfbitk, fstd æ, kd

beprbckmdr. D gditbÿmd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd æ, pdfs, rbhktfvkebitb

fimbtbrefikmd, jkvbimd sbeprb huckr k uek ‘bspbgflfgkãçd―, k gkrcd md

beprbckmdr. Gditrktkimd, d trk`khjkmdr vfiguhk-sb k prbstkr ue gbrtd tfpd mb

kgtfvfmkmb, b ekfs sb suobftk k qub bhk sbok gdigrbtkebitb mbtbrefikmk pdr uek

bspægfb mb ‘bsgdhjk― mk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk. Içd prdebtb, pdfs, kpbiks k

kgtfvfmkmb, eks tke`æe gdigdrmk bxbgutë-hk ikqubhbs prbgfsds tbreds qub d

beprbckmdr vbijk k bxfcfr. K bstb ÿhtfed pbrtbigb, k gkmk edebitd b be gbrtds

hfeftbs, mfrfcfr k bxbguãçd blbgtfvk mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd, drmbikimd-k ik suk

kgtukãçd gdigrbtk.

^dmbr mfrbgtfvd md beprbckmdr gded gdrrbspdimbitb mk su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk? Î

su`drmfikãçd gkrkgtbråstfgk mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd gdrrbspdimb d pdmbr mfrbgtfvd

mk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk. Bstb pdmbr æ d fistruebitd kmbqukmd qub rbsdhvb k

rbhktfvk fimbtbrefikãçd mk prbstkãçd hk`drktfvk. Ks bxfcïigfks mb eçd-mb-d`rk mb

uek drckifzkãçd prdmutfvk fephfgke qub k lfxkãçd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd sbok

lbftk gde gbrtk cbibrkhfmkmb b figdigrbtfzkãçd. ^krbgb bvfmbitb qub içd pdmbrfk

sbrvfr ks gdivbifïigfks be pbrekibitb eutkãçd mb uek beprbsk, tdekimd-sb

fidpbrkitb kqubhb gditrktd be qub vfbssbe prbvfstds ds prbgfsds edhmbs be qub sb

vkf mbsbivdhvbr k prbstkãçd md trk`khjd.

Lfxkãçd b Gdigrbtfzkãçd mk ^rbstkãçd mb ]rk`khjd? D gditrktd mb trk`khjd æ, gded

sb mfssb, fikgk`kmd b bxpdstd kd luturd. Içd sb fmbitflfgke, pdfs, gdephbtk b

pdrebidrfzkmkebitb id gditrktd tdmds ds bhbebitds mk kgtfvfmkmb hk`drktfvk. K suk

lfxkãçd lfgk kd gufmkmd mk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk qub, id bxbrgågfd md sbu pdmbr

gdephbebitkr mb ‘bsgdhjk―, mbsbijk d prdcrkek mb gueprfebitd md trk`khjkmdr, k bxbgutkr mb kgdrmd gde ds lfis qub bhk tfvbr pdr gdivbifbitbs b qub sçd

gkrkgtbrfstfgkebitb ds mk drckifzkãçd kd sbrvfãd mds qukfs bstë d gditrktd.

Wçd ks ibgbssfmkmbs mbstk drckifzkãçd gdephbxk qub bxfcbe uek rbhktfvk

ekhbk`fhfmkmb ik bxbguãçd mk kgtfvfmkmb, k qub gdrrbspdimb id phkid ouråmfgd uek

ldrek gditrktukh be qub d d`obgtd mb uek mks prbstkãòbs sb gkrkgtbrfzk pbhk

rbhktfvk fimbtbrefikãçd, k rbsdhvbr mb kgdrmd gde d fitbrbssb md beprbckmdr. K bstb

gdivæe sbeprb cukrmkr pdssf`fhfmkmb mb edmbhkãçd mk eçd-mb-d`rk kd sbu sbrvfãd.

K bhb b k ekfs ificuæe mbvb gdepbtfr, içd gdisbitfimd prbgfsk mbtbrefikãçd id




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik =

gditrktd, d kspbgtd mb bxbguãçd tægifgk ‗ k bspbgfkh edmkhfmkmb, d gded b, mb

gbrtd edmd, d qukimd b d dimb ‗ mks tkrblks mb qub ibgbssftk, ks qukfs d trk`khjkmdr

cbibrfgkebitb gdigdrmdu prbstkr. Ibe pdr dutrd hkmd, bstë mblfifmk id gditrktd k

luturk pdsfãçd md trk`khjkmdr, sbimd gbrtd qub bstb pdssuf uek bxpbgtktfvk mb

gkrrbfrk b mb ebhjdrbs gditrkpkrtfmks.

K bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk, id edebitd be qub gditrktk, kpbiks bstë fildrekmk md

qukmrd cbrkh mb gdimutks mds trk`khjkmdrbs qub hjb pdmbe vfr k fitbrbsskr. B pdrqub

ikmk ekfs sk`b, sdebitb rblbrb id gditrktd, mb edmd cbrkh b k`strkgtd, d tfpd mb

kgtfvfmkmb mb qub pbisk ibgbssftkr.

Koustkebitd Gditåiuds mk ^rbstkãçd? Id mbsbivdhvfebitd mks rbhkãòbs gditrktukfs,

sbr-hjb-ë pdssåvbh sk`br qukh k bspbgålfgk tkrblk mb qub prbgfsk gdigrbtkebitb, pkrk

gkmk lksb mb prdmuãçd? pdr fssd cukrmk d mfrbftd mb k bsgdhjbr k tdmd d tbepd. Kd

beprbckmdr s÷ gdivbfd k fimbtbrefikãçd fifgfkh pbhk pdssf`fhfmkmb mb k rbsdhvbr k sbu

lkvdr. Wb içd ldssb k pdssf`fhfmkmb mb koustkebitds gditåiuds, d gditrktd mb trk`khjd

içd pdmbrfk sbr ue gditrktd murkmdurd b d rbcfeb mb sbcurkiãk id beprbcd içd

pbreftfrfk qub d gditrktd mb trk`khjd mbsbepbijkssb k suk luiãçd bgdi÷efgk.

K gkrcd md beprbckmdr bstë, pdfs, k mbtbrefikãçd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd, qubr

ktrfùfimd ue gkrcd du gdiouitd mb tkrblks ekfs bspbgålfgks k gkmk trk`khjkmdr ik

beprbsk, fstd æ, mfstrfùfimd ds pdstds mb trk`khjd, qubr mbtbrefikimd-hjbs sficuhkrbs

dpbrkãòbs bxbgutfvks. B kfimk hjb pbrtbigb edmbhkr b rbdrfbitkr bssks ebseks

prbstkãòbs mb kgdrmd gde ds fitbrbssbs mk beprbsk.

^dmbr mbtbrefikitb b mfspdif`fhfmkmb mb trk`khjkmdr? Æ, pdrtkitd, gde bstk bspægfb

mb bsgdhjk, gde d bxbrgågfd md pdmbr mbtbrefiktfvd, qub k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk

më ue mbstfid gdigrbtd î ldrãk mb trk`khjd qub d trk`khjkmdr pòb î suk mfspdsfãçd.

Wb d beprbckmdr içd fimfgk qukfs ks tkrblks qub, be gdigrbtd, d trk`khjkmdr tbe mb

bxbgutkr b içd lfxk d edmd mbssk bxbguãçd, bstb, ik cbibrkhfmkmb mks sftukãòbs,

içd pdmbrë bxbgutkr k prbstkãçd mbvfmk. ^dr fssd sb tbe mftd qub k pdsfãçd md

trk`khjkmdr sb gdilfcurk kitbs mb ekfs gded ue ‘bstkr î mfspdsfãçd―? d trk`khjkmdr,

gditrktkimd, suèbtbu-sb k mbsbepbijkr, mbitrd mks kgtfvfmkmbs prdebtfmks,

kqubhks qub k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk k gkmk edebitd vbijk prbtbimbr.

Bstkeds, kssfe, be prbsbiãk mb ue mbvbmdr guok prbstkãçd æ drckifzkmk pbhd

rbspbgtfvd grbmdr, kfimk qub sbeprb kmbitrd md tfpd cbiærfgd mk kgtfvfmkmb

prdebtfmk.





D trk`khjkmdr kut÷ided prbstk sbrvfãd pkrk k drckifzkãçd b d trk`khjkmdr mbsbivdhvb

kgtfvfmkmb ‘id àe`ftd mk drckifzkãçd―.

K Wu`drmfikãçd Ouråmfgk gded Ibgbssfmkmb ]ægifgk mk Beprbsk? Bstk pdsfãçd md

trk`khjkmdr æ uek bxfcïigfk mk beprbsk edmbrik b, pdr fssd, bxfstb du bxfstfu qubr

ids pkåsbs sdgfkhfstks qubr ids mb bgdidefk mb ebrgkmd. K su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk

gdistftuf uek ibgbssfmkmb tægifgk qub gdrrbspdimb îs bxfcïigfks mk prdmuãçd

edmbrik be beprbsk, k qukh æ tke`æe uek drckifzkãçd jfbrkrqufzkmk mb pbssdks,

kgtukimd gde prdgbssds mb mfvfsçd mb trk`khjd ekhbëvbfs, gditrdhëvbfs b suèbtfmds

k ue skigfdikebitd febmfktd (puifãòbs mfsgfphfikrbs, rbgdepbisks), sbe pksskr

pbhks ekhjks md sfstbek oumfgfkh.

Mbedgrkgfk Fimustrfkh? Æ gbrtd qub k ktbiukãçd mk jfbrkrqufzkãçd mks beprbsks, k

gjkekmk ‘mbedgrkgfk fimustrfkh― b ks ldreks mb fitbrvbiãçd du pkrtfgfpkãçd ik

cbstçd mds trk`khjkmdrbs gdistftube hfeftbs î su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk. Gditumd, içd

grbeds qub k brdsçd sfciflfgktfvk mds pdmbrbs pktrdikfs mb gdekimd b mb

suprbekgfk b k pr÷prfk fitbrvbiãçd mds trk`khjkmdrbs iks ërbks md pdmbr mk

beprbsk pdsske bhfefikr k sftukãçd mb su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk qub bebrcb mk

ibgbssfmkmb mk drckifzkãçd md trk`khjd b gditrdhd md sbu mbsbepbijd.

^rdgbmfebitkhfzkãçd? Fcukhebitb, d pdmbr md beprbckmdr bigditrk-sb jdob

prdgbmfebitkhfzkmd, mbvbimd sbr bxbrgfmd be mbtbrefikmds tbreds b

gdimfãòbs, mb edmd trkispkrbitb, gde k`brturk îs gdivbifïigfks mds

trk`khjkmdrbs, be qub k mbgfsçd mk beprbsk æ gditrdhëvbh. Bstks fepdrtkitbs

hfeftkãòbs içd mbsgkrkgtbrfzke, gditumd, d pdmbr mfrbgtfvd md beprbckmdr qub

gdistftuf k dutrk lkgb mk su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk.

Idvks Ldreks mb Drckifzkãçd md ]rk`khjd? Wupdeds qub içd æ mb ktrfùfr sfciflfgkmd

k su`stftufãçd id G] md tbred ‘mfrbgãçd― md beprbckmdr, pbhd ‘àe`ftd mb

drckifzkãçd― mbstb. Khfës, d G] lkz ghkrkebitb id krt. ;>¿ d gditrkpditd bitrb

‘su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk― b ‘mbpbimïigfk bgdi÷efgk―.

Pbtrfùfãçd? K d`rfckãçd, k gkrcd mk pbssdk sbrvfmk, mb pkckr uek rbtrfùfãçd gded

gditrkpkrtfmk æ bssbigfkh kd gdigbftd mb gditrktd mb trk`khjd. Bxghube-sb, kssfe,

mbstb ks ldreks `biævdhks du crktuftks mb kgtfvfmkmb b vdhuitkrfkmd.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik <

FF - Dutrks gkrkgtbråstfgks md gditrktd mb trk`khjd

Gditrktukhfmkmb (mbsbivdhvfebitd)

^hkid Cbiætfgd? d kgdrmd mks pkrtbs æ bssbigfkh pkrk qub iksãke ks d`rfckãòbs

rbgåprdgks bitrb k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk b d trk`khjkmdr, qub sçd ds gditrkbitbs du

kd qub be Mfrbftd sb gjkek mb pkrtbs.

^hkid Luigfdikh? k gdrrbspdimbitb rbhkãçd gditrktukh s÷ surcb pdrqub ldf qubrfmk pbhks

pkrtbs? kd ekiflbstkrbe k suk vditkmb, ks pkrtbs prbtbimbrke d`tbr ue gbrtd b

mbtbrefikmd blbftd, fstd æ, vfiguhkrbe-sb rbgfprdgkebitb î rbkhfzkãçd md trk`khjd b kd

pkckebitd mb uek rbtrfùfãçd.

^hkid idrektfvd? d gditrktd æ hbf bitrb ks pkrtbs b mbhb pdmbe gdistkr ghkusuhks qub

lfxke ds mfrbftds b mbvbrbs bebrcbitbs.

Gditumd, æ lëgfh edstrkr qub k vditkmb mds gditrkbitbs tbe klfikh ebids rbhbvd qub ik

ekfdrfk mds tfpds ibcdgfkfs? ks ghëusuhks gditrktukfs bigditrke-sb oë præ-mblfifmks iks

gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks b ids rbcuhkebitds mks beprbsks, sbe mbfxkr sfciflfgktfvd huckr

î bxprbssçd mk kutdidefk mk vditkmb (kfimk qub içd mbvk bsqubgbr-sb d pkpbh mkvditkmb ik bvdhuãçd md gditrktd, pdr bxbephd, id qub rbspbftk k edmflfgkãòbs mb

dòbgtd, md huckr mb trk`khjd, îs prdedãòbs, kds kuebitds rbtrfùtfvds, btg.). Kssfe,

biqukitd iue gditrktd mb gdeprk b vbimk mb ue præmfd ks pkrtbs pdmbe hfvrbebitb

lfxkr d editkitb md prbãd, id gditrktd mb trk`khjd k mbtbrefikãçd md vkhdr mk

rbtrfùfãçd bstë î pkrtfmk hfeftkmk, pdfs æ d`rfckt÷rfd rbspbftkr ds editkitbs eåifeds

lfxkmds ik hbf b iks gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks mb trk`khjd b, ebsed qukimd içd bstë

idrektfvkebitb hfeftkmk, gdrrbspdimb k gbrtds pkmròbs beprbskrfkfs qub içd æ lëgfh

khtbrkr b s÷ tbdrfgkebitb sçd mfsgutåvbfs du ibcdgfëvbfs, skhvd gksds pkrtfguhkrbs.

^brspbgtfvk Fistftugfdikhfstk? Wbe prbouåzd mk gditrktukhfmkmb mk rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd,

pbiskeds, gditumd, qub içd sb pdmb prbsgfimfr mb uek gbrtk pbrspbgtfvk

fistftugfdikhfstk qub mï d mbvfmd vkhdr î fisbrãçd md trk`khjkmdr ik beprbsk, kfimk

qub ebmfkitb d gditrktd mb trk`khjd. ^dr vfk mbstb, d trk`khjkmdr içd lfgk kpbiks

d`rfckmd î prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãd gditrk k rbtrfùfãçd, eks kfimk k prbstkr uek

gdhk`drkãçd pbrekibitb b murkmdurk iuek beprbsk, k guod mbstfid içd æ bstrkijd,

lfgkimd suobftd k rbhkãòbs gdeuiftërfks mb sdhfmkrfbmkmb gde ds sbus pr÷prfds

gdepkijbfrds mb trk`khjd b mb gddpbrkãçd gde k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk.





Gditrktd mb Drckifzkãçd? Kfimk qub sbok fibcëvbh k rbhkãçd gdilhftukh bitrb k

bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk b d trk`khjkmdr d gditrktd mb trk`khjd içd mbfxk mb tbr

ficrbmfbitbs kssdgfktfvds, trktkimd-sb pdr gbrtd mb ue gditrktd mb drckifzkãçd. D

pr÷prfd gdigbftd mb gditrktd mb trk`khjd md krt. ;;¿ lkz kpbhd î fisbrãçd md

trk`khjkmdr ‘id àe`ftd mb drckifzkãçd―. Wbe gdisfmbrkr ds kspbgtds drckifzkgfdikfs

mk rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd æ mflågfh gdeprbbimbr pbrlbftkebitb gbrtks qubstòbs md

gditbÿmd mb tkh rbhkãçd, gded k md pdmbr mfsgfphfikr b sbu bxbrgågfd, k mk gktbcdrfk

prdlfssfdikh, k md pdmbr rbcuhkebitkr, btg., b tke`æe æ mflågfh pbrspbgtfvkr

kmbqukmkebitb gbrtds kspbgtds mfiàefgds mb rbhkãçd md trk`khjd.

Mb qukhqubr edmd, k vkhdrfzkãçd mk fitbrvbiãçd ik beprbsk, mds kspbgtds

drckifzkgfdikfs gdeuiftërfds b md gkrëgtbr pbssdkh mds våiguhds içd fephfgk k ibckãçd

mk gditrktukhfmkmb mks rbhkãòbs mb trk`khjd.

Dibrdsfmkmb b Gdeutktfvfmkmb

Ibxd mb Pbgfprdgfmkmb b mb Fitbrmbpbimïigfk bitrb ks ^rbstkãòbs ^rfigfpkfs? D

gditrktd mb trk`khjd æ ue gditrktd dibrdsd, d qub sfciflfgk qub ktrkvæs mbhb sb

blbgtuk uek trdgk mb vkitkcbis b `biblågfds.

]rktk-sb tke`æe mb ue gditrktd `fhktbrkh b gdeutktfvd? mbhb iksgbe d`rfckãòbs pkrk

ke`ks ks pkrtbs, bxfstfimd bitrb bssks d`rfckãòbs ue ibxd mb rbgfprdgfmkmb b

fitbrmbpbimïigfk (sfikhkcek).

D gditrktd mb trk`khjd sbcub ue edmbhd sfikhkceëtfgd qubr ik suk cæibsb, oë qub ik

gdistftufãçd md gditrktd k d`rfckãçd kssuefmk pdr ue mds gditrkbitbs gdistftuf k

rkzçd mb sbr mk d`rfckãçd gditrkåmk pbhd dutrd (sfikhkcek cbiætfgd), qubr id sbu

luigfdikebitd, oë qub ks d`rfckãòbs tïe mb sbr gueprfmks gde rbhktfvk

sfeuhtkibfmkmb b fitbrmbpbimïigfk (sfikhkcek luigfdikh) .

Id bitkitd, d sfikhkcek id gditrktd mb trk`khjd içd æ pbrlbftd, mkmk k rfqubzk mb

gditbÿmd mks d`rfckãòbs gditrktukfs b ebsed k sfikhkcektfgfmkmb bvfmbitb mks

prbstkãòbs prfigfpkfs (trk`khjd/rbtrf`ufãçd) sb bs`ktb be gbrtks sftukãòbs, pdmbimd

jkvbr mfrbftd î rbtrf`ufãçd ebsed ids gksds be qub içd jë prbstkãçd md trk`khjd

(lkhtks oustflfgkmks).

K bstruturk sfikhkceëtfgk md gditrktd mb trk`khjd æ `kstkitb gdephbxk, pdmbimd

mfstficufr-sb?




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik :

d sfikhkcek rbstrftd , bxfstbitb bitrb ks prbstkãòbs mb trktd sugbssfvd

prbsbitbs id gditrktd b qub tïe k vbr gde k gditrkpdsfãçd

rbtrfùfãçd/jdrk du mfk du eïs mb trk`khjd, qub tbe euftd fitbrbssb

prëtfgd pkrk hfqufmkr ds mbsgditds be gksd mb lkhtks du pkrk gëhguhd mb

ktrfùfãòbs suphbebitkrbs (trk`khjd suphbebitkr)1

d sfikhkcek khkrckmd , rblbrfmd kd vkståssfed gdephbxd mb d`rfckãòbs

rbgåprdgks mds gditrkbitbs, be qub bstçd fighuåmks vbrtbitbs gded k

sbcurkiãk, skÿmb, lærfks, hfgbiãks, ldrekãçd prdlfssfdikh, prdtbgãçd

sdgfkh b ks rbhktfvks kds mfrbftds mb pbrsdikhfmkmb.

K Gdephbxfmkmb md Gditbÿmd

K Pbhkãçd Hk`drkh gded Pbhkãçd Gditrktukh Gdephbxk? D gditbÿmd mk rbhkãçd mb

trk`khjd içd sb kikhfsk kpbiks iks d`rfckãòbs luimkebitkfs mks pkrtbs? prbstkãçd md

trk`khjd su`drmfikmd b prbstkãçd mk rbtrfùfãçd. K hbf bspbgflfgk euftds mfrbftds b

mbvbrbs (krts. ;03¾ k ;06¾ md G]), khcuis mbhbs gdibxds gde ks prbstkãòbs luimkebitkfs

(d mbvbr mb d`bmfïigfk, d mbvbr mb pditukhfmkmb md trk`khjkmdr), surcfimd dutrds gde

rbhktfvk fimbpbimïigfk (d`rfckãçd pktrdikh mb fimbeifzkr d trk`khjkmdr pdr prbouåzds

gkuskmds pdr kgfmbitbs mb trk`khjd, k d`rfckãçd mb mkr lærfks, k d`rfckãçd mb

hbkhmkmb md trk`khjkmdr).

K Murk`fhfmkmb

D G] gded rbhkãçd gditrktukh murkmdurk? D gditrktd mb trk`khjd æ murkmdurd , pdrqub

sktfslkz fitbrbssbs mds gditrkbitbs qub sb mbstfike k pbrmurkr id tbepd.D

drmbikebitd ouråmfgd prdtbcb k gditfiufmkmb b bstk`fhfmkmb mks rbhkãòbs gditrktukfs.

D lkgtdr tbepdrkh kssueb pkrtfguhkr rbhbvàigfk içd s÷ ik murkãçd mk rbhkãçd mbtrk`khjd eks tke`æe ik murkãçd md trk`khjd.

k prbstkãçd md trk`khjd tbe mb sbr drmbikmk tbepdrkhebitb be

luiãçd mb mbtbrefikmks ibgbssfmkmbs mk beprbsk, mb edmd k mkr

rbspdstk î sdhfgftkãçd mb eçd-mb-d`rk supdstk pbhd sbu pbrådmd mb

luigfdikebitd.

k prbstkãçd md trk`khjd tbe idrekhebitb uek bxprbssçd tbepdrkh

qub gdistftuf k suk ebmfmk (qukitue mk prbstkãçd) , du mfebisçd

qukitftktfvk b qub sb rbhkgfdik gde k rbtrfùfãçd.





Gkrëgtbr Gdhk`drktfvd

\åiguhd mk Eÿtuk Gdhk`drkãçd ik Beprbsk gded Gkrkgtbråstfgk md G]? [ukhqubr

rbhkãçd gditrktukh supòb k gdhk`drkãçd mb `dk-læ mb ke`ds ds gditrkbitbs ik

bxbguãçd md prdcrkek gditrktukh. D prfigåpfd mk gdhk`drkãçd tbe uek

kgbitukãçd bspbgfkh id gditrktd mb trk`khjd pbhk rbhkãçd drckifzktfvk murkmdurk

ik beprbsk qub sb bstk`bhbgb bitrb ds gditrkbitbs.

K klfrekãçd mb ue prfigåpfd mb gdhk`drkãçd içd fivkhfmk qub k rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd

tbijk su`okgbitb uek gdilhftukhfmkmb fekibitb bitrb ds fitbrbssbs mfvbrcbitbs md

beprbckmdr b md trk`khjkmdr.

K fmbfk mb gdhk`drkãçd æ fimbpbimbitb md sfstbek pdhåtfgd vfcbitb. Wbrvb fstd pkrk

bxphfgkr qub kpbskr mb d rblbrfmd prfigåpfd tbr sfmd bhk`drkmd id gditbxtd mb ue

sfstbek gdrpdrktfvd, tkh içd d`stk k qub sb gditfiub k mkr-hjb k mbvfmk rbhbvàigfk.

Gde blbftd, grbeds qub d prfigåpfd mk gdhk`drkãçd tbe utfhfmkmb pkrk bxphfgkr ks

vërfks ldreks mb fitbrvbiãçd mds trk`khjkmdrbs ik beprbsk b kfimk pkrk qukhflfgkr ds

mbvbrbs mb mfhfcïigfk b mb `dk-læ ik rbkhfzkãçd md trk`khjd.

^rfigfpkhebitb iks d`rfckãòbs murkmdurks, pdrqub bspbgfkhebitb kssbitbs ik

gdilfkiãk, æ lrbqubitbebitb gdisfmbrkr-sb bxfstbitb uek rbhkãçd gdeuiftërfk mb

gkrëgtbr pbssdkh. D G] ekitæe rblbrïigfk kd prfigåpfd mk eÿtuk gdhk`drkãçd ‗ krt.;0<¿ md G].

Gkrëgtbr Lfmugfërfd

K Pbhkãçd Hk`drkh gded Pbhkãçd ^bssdkh b mb Gdilfkiãk? D gditrktd mb trk`khjd æ

mb gkrëgtbr pbssdkh b prbssupòb uek rbhkãçd mb gdilfkiãk b mb gdhk`drkãçd

bstrbftk, bstkimd ibhb su`okgbitb d kgrbmftkrbe ks pkrtbs be qukhfmkmbs mb

jdibstfmkmb, hbkhmkmb b gdilfmbigfkhfmkmb luimkebitkfs pkrk k gdisbguãçd mk

lfikhfmkmb gditrktukh. Æ ghkrd qub jë sbeprb ue trkãd mb gdilfkiãk iks rbhkãòbsd`rfckgfdikfs, eks ibstbs gksds k gdilfkiãk iks qukhfmkmbs mk dutrk pkrtb gdistftuf k

rkfz fimblbgtåvbh b d prbssupdstd bssbigfkh b gdistkitb mk rbhkãçd.

Ikturkhebitb qub d prbssupdstd lfmugfërfd mbpbimb be hkrck ebmfmk mks luiãòbs

bxbrgfmks pbhd trk`khjkmdr, sbimd mb crku euftd bhbvkmd ids gkrcds mb mfrbgãçd.

D gditkgtd åitfed b pbrekibitb qub bxfstb bitrb ue trk`khjkmdr b d beprbckmdr

fephfgk gdisfmbrëvbfs rfsgds mb hbsçd rbgåprdgk? d trk`khjkmdr vï-sb fisbrfmd iuek

drckifzkãçd mdefikmk pbhk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk b, pdrtkitd, bigditrk-sb bxpdstd




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik ;>

î vfdhkãçd mds sbus mfrbftds b mk suk pr÷prfk pbrsdikhfmkmb1 k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk

fisbrb ik drckifzkãçd prdmutfvk khcuæe qub pdmb gkuskr prbouåzds gdisfmbrëvbfs.

FFF ‗ Gditrktd mb ]rk`khjd b Lfcurks ^r÷xfeks

Jë, gded pditd prævfd, qub lkzbr rblbrïigfk k gbrtds ebgkifseds mblrkumkt÷rfds mks

idreks tutbhkrbs md trk`khjd b kfimk î tbitktfvk mb bstk`bhbgbr bsqubeks gditrktukfs

hfvrbs mds mbsgditds pkrk k sbcurkiãk sdgfkh mds trk`khjkmdrbs su`drmfikmds. Euftd

be`drk bstbs gksds mb lrkumb sboke sd`rbtumd prdedvfmds pbhd beprbckmdr, idutrds

d fitbrbssb æ ekiflbstkmd pbhds pr÷prfds trk`khjkmdrbs. Be euftks jfp÷tbsbs, ds

gditrkbitbs prdgurke grfsekr d gditrktd mb trk`khjd gde k mbsfcikãçd mb dutrds

gditrktds tåpfgds qub içd sboke mb trk`khjd, mfssfeuhkimd vbrmkmbfrks rbhkãòbs mb

trk`khjd mbpbimbitb.

Be dutrks, prdgurke mfslkrãkr k su`drmfikãçd ktrkvæs mb bhbebitds bspbgfkfs

susgbptåvbfs mb mbsgkrkgtbrfzkr d gditrktd gded mb trk`khjd su`drmfikmd, pkrk sbr

qukhflfgkmd gded trk`khjd kut÷ided. Iue b idutrd gksd sbrçd ds gditrktds mb

prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãd (tåpfgds du içd) ds edmbhds kmdptkmds pkrk bigd`rfr ks rbhkãòbs

mb trk`khjd.

Ds gditrkbitbs pdmbe dptkr pbhd bsqubek mk prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãd, mbsmb qub sb

içd mfssfeuhb ue vbrmkmbfrd gditrktd mb trk`khjd b sb prbsgfimk md gkrëgtbr

su`drmfikmd mk prbstkãçd. ^dmb, kssfe, jkvbr uek ‘luck― hågftk kd gditrktd mb

trk`khjd. Wkhvd k bxfstïigfk mb hbf bxprbssk be gditrërfd, d drmbikebitd ouråmfgd içd

bxfcb qub sbok kmdptkmd d bsqubek md gditrktd mb trk`khjd su`drmfikmd du md

gditrktd hfvrb du kut÷ided mb prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãd.

Ibe sb mbvb bsqubgbr kquf k rbcrk mk kutdidefk mk vditkmb, be qub «mbitrd mds

hfeftbs mk hbf, ks pkrtbs tïe k lkguhmkmb mb lfxkr hfvrbebitb d gditbÿmd mds gditrktds±

(krt. =>2¾ md GG). B d prd`hbek mk ibgbssërfk tutbhk mk pkrtb ekfs lrkgk du ebids

bxpbrfbitb içd sb gdhdgk qukimd k rbcuhkãçd bsgdhjfmk ldr k ekfs gdildreb gde k

luigfdikhfmkmb md «lkgbrb± k qub tbimb d d`obgtd gditrktukh.

Æ jdob uek mks idvks lrditbfrks md Mfrbftd md trk`khjd prdtbcbr ds trk`khjkmdrbs

kut÷ideds, qub sb pdmbe bigditrkr be sftukãòbs prëtfgks euftd ekfs lrëcbfs qub ks

mds trk`khjkmdrbs su`drmfikmds.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik ;;

Gditrktd mb sdgfbmkmb æ kqubhb be qub muks du ekfs pbssdks sb d`rfcke k

gditrfùfr gde `bis du sbrvfãds pkrk d bxbrgågfd be gdeue mb gbrtk kgtfvfmkmb

bgdi÷efgk, qub içd sbok mb ebrk lrufãçd, k lfe mb rbpkrtfrbe ds hugrds rbsuhtkitbs

mbssk kgtfvfmkmb± (krt. 6:>¾ md GG). Bstk idãçd, gdiskcrkmk ik hbf pkrk ks

sdgfbmkmbs gfvfs, kphfgk-sb tke`æe îs sdgfbmkmbs gdebrgfkfs, sbimd kpbiks mb

kgrbsgbitkr qub bstks sb mbmfgke î prëtfgk mb kgtds gdebrgfkfs (be sbitfmd ouråmfgd)

b kmdptke uek mks sbcufitbs ldreks? sdgfbmkmb be ideb gdhbgtfvd, sdgfbmkmb pdr

qudtks, sdgfbmkmb ki÷ifek du sdgfbmkmb be gdekimftk (krt. ;¿ md GWG).

Bstk mfstfiãçd içd pòb, be rbcrk, mflfguhmkmbs, mkmd qub d gditrktd mb sdgfbmkmb

tbe uek lfikhfmkmb gdeue hugrktfvk pkrk ks pkrtbs, d qub içd sugbmb id gditrktd

mb trk`khjd, pkrk khbe mb qub d prfebfrd prbssupòb k fcukhmkmb bitrb ks pkrtbs b d

sbcuimd ghkrkebitb qub içd.

D gditrktd mb ekimktd (krt. ;;23¾ GG) ‗ tbe pdr dòbgtd k prëtfgk mb kgtds ouråmfgds,

gde kutdidefk, b sb prbsueb crktuftd. Wfephbsebitb, khcueks vbzbs kgditbgb qub d

gditrktd mb trk`khjd tbe tke`æe pdr dòbgtd bxghusfvkebitb kgtds ouråmfgds, d qub

tdek ekfs mflågfh k mfstfiãçd mds gditrktds mb ekimktd, sd`rbtumd qukimd d ekimktd

ldr dibrdsd, fstd æ, qukimd d ekimktërfd rbgb`br uek rbtrfùfãçd gded gditrkpkrtfmk

md sbrvfãd prbstkmd (krt. ;;2:¾ GG). Ibstbs gksds, k mfstfiãçd tbrë mb sb lkzbr ktrkvæs

mk bxfstïigfk du içd mb su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk.

Wftukãçd bspbgfkh æ k mds kmefifstrkmdrbs b cbrbitbs mks sdgfbmkmbs, qub prktfgke

kgtds ouråmfgds be ideb mbssks pbssdks gdhbgtfvks qub rbprbsbitke, sbimd pdr bhks

rbtrfùåmds. Wfephbsebitb, ibstbs gksds, jë uek rbhkãçd mb drckifgfmkmb supdstk

pbhk pr÷prfk ikturbzk mks pbssdks gdhbgtfvks, qub tïe mb kcfr pdr ÷rcçds, qub

ibgbssftke mb supdrtb juekid. Bssks pbssdks mbsfcikmks pkrk fitbcrkr tkfs ÷rcçds

içd sçd kpbiks ekimktërfds, eks supdrtbs mb ÷rcçds fimbpbimbitbs. Bxfstfimd,

pdrvbiturk sfeuhtkibkebitb, uek rbhkãçd mb beprbcd gde k sdgfbmkmb, bsskrbhkãçd supòb uek kutdidefk ik kgtfvfmkmb qub k mflbrbigfk mk sftukãçd mds

trk`khjkmdrbs su`drmfikmds. ^krk khæe mfstd, æ bvfmbitb qub ds kmefifstrkmdrbs gded

qub bigkrike k pdsfãçd pktrdikh, surcfimd, pdfs, gded pktròbs du beprbckmdrbs.

K pr÷prfk hbf bstk`bhbgb uek figdepktf`fhfmkmb bitrb ks luiãòbs mb kmefifstrkmdrbs b

ks mb trk`khjkmdrbs (krt. 76:¾ md GWG), mbstfikmk k kssbcurkr k hf`brmkmb mb ds s÷gfds

bsgdhjbrbe b mbstftuårbe ds kmefifstrkmdrbs. Kssfe, qukimd ldr idebkmd

kmefifstrkmdr mb uek sdgfbmkmb ki÷ifek uek pbssdk oë k bstk vfiguhkmk pdr

gditrktd mb trk`khjd, mbtbrefik-sb d sbcufitb? (;) sb d gditrktd mb trk`khjd gde k




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik ;0

sdgfbmkmb tfvbr sfmd gbhb`rkmd jë ebids mb ue kid bxtficub-sb kutdektfgkebitb1

(0) gksd d våiguhd hk`drkh tbijk murkãçd supbrfdr, d gditrktd mb trk`khjd suspbimb-sb

biqukitd sb ekitfvbr k rbhkãçd mb kmefifstrkmdr. Ds kmefifstrkmdrbs içd pdmbe

tke`æe gbhb`rkr gditrktds qub vfsbe uek prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãds qukimd lfimkr k

rbhkãçd mb kmefifstrkãçd.

^dr mfvbrsks vbzbs d G] rblbrb-sb kds trk`khjkmdrbs qub mbsbepbijke gkrcds mb

kmefifstrkãçd, gded sugbmb, pdr bxbephd, k prdp÷sftd mk gdefssçd mb sbrvfãd (krt.

;<;¾) b mb mfvbrsds kspbgtds gdibxds gde k murkãçd b drckifzkãçd md tbepd mb

trk`khjd (krts. 0>3¿/0, `), 0;7¾, 0;=¾, 0;:¿/; b 077¾). Be idssk dpfifçd, trktk-sb kquf mb

trk`khjkmdrbs, prbgfskebitb ds md bsgkhçd ekfs khtd mk beprbsk, b içd mb

vbrmkmbfrds kmefifstrkmdrbs

Gditrktd mb Kcïigfk ‗ gditrktd be qub uek pkrtb kssueb bstkvbhebitb d gkrcd mb

prdedvbr ibc÷gfds ouitd mb gbrtds ghfbitbs, pdr gditk mb dutrbe. K prdedãçd mb

ibc÷gfds æ k suk lfsfdidefk tåpfgk. D prd`hbek pòb-sb qukimd d kcbitb æ pkcd be

pbrgbitkcbe du gdefssçd. Eks kå k mflbrbiãk bstk`bhbgb-sb kd iåvbh mk kutdidefk b

fimbpbimïigfk mds kcbitbs.

Gditrktd mb Beprbftkmk (krt. ;0>3¿ GG) ‗ d beprbftbfrd rbkhfzk k suk prbstkãçd,

ebmfkitb ue prbãd, be lkvdr md mdid mk d`rk. K mfstfiãçd qukitd kd gditrktd mb

trk`khjd bstë id lkgtd mb sb prdebtbr ik beprbftkmk ue rbsuhtkmd b içd uek

kgtfvfmkmb, be qub d trk`khjd vkf oë figdrpdrkmd. Ik beprbftkmk æ d beprbftbfrd qub

ldribgb ds ektbrfkfs b utbisåhfds ibgbssërfds.

F\ ‗ Gditrktds Bqufpkrkmds

Gditrktds Bqufpkrkmds? Ldrk md gditrktd mb trk`khjd bstë d trk`khjd kut÷ided sbe

su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk. Æ d qub sugbmb gde k prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãds pdr pkrtb mds

prdlfssfdikfs hf`brkfs.

Eks jë sftukãòbs mb trk`khjd kut÷ided bxtrbekebitb sbebhjkitbs î kgtfvfmkmb

hk`drkh, d qub hbvdu d hbcfshkmdr k lkzbr k gdrrbspdimbitb bqufpkrkãçd.

K gfrguistàigfk mb d Mfrbftd mb ]rk`khjd prbssupdr ue gditrktd mb trk`khjd bxghuf

euftks sftukãòbs be qub, mb lkgtd, d prbstkmdr mb sbrvfãds mbvbrfk kulbrfr mb

sbebhjkitb trktkebitd. Wçd ks sftukãòbs mb su`drmfikãçd bgdi÷efgk du pkrk

su`drmfikãçd.





Kssfe, k bqufpkrkãçd vbe bstk`bhbgfmk id krt. ;>¿ G]. K suk kphfgkãçd mbpbimb mb?

kusïigfk mb su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk ‗ d trk`khjd æ kut÷ided1

su`drmfikãçd (mbpbimïigfk) bgdi÷efgk.

Mbpbimïigfk bgdi÷efgk gksds mb mb`fhfmkmb gditrktukh md prbstkmdr mb sbrvfãds

(bxghusfvfmkmb mb beprbcd b mb skhërfd) b be qub d prdgbssd prdmutfvd md prbstkmdr

sbok figdrpdrkmd id prdgbssd prdmutfvd md `biblfgfërfd (EDI]BFPD LBPIKIMBW).

\ - ]rk`khjd kut÷ided b trk`khjd su`drmfikmd. Gksds muvfmdsds b lrkumb. K

prbsuiãçd mb hk`drkhfmkmb md krt. ;0¿. Grftærfd md gditrktd mb trk`khjd.

]rk`khjd kut÷ided b trk`khjd su`drmfikmd? Ds gditrktds qub tïe pdr dòbgtd d

trk`khjd kut÷ided sçd gditrktds gfvfs mb prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãds be qub sb kssueb

uek d`rfckãçd md rbsuhtkmd mb ue trk`khjd, fimbpbimbitbebitb mb rbtrfùfãçd ‗ krt.

;;2=¿ GG.

Kg÷rmçd W]O 0/\/0>>0? mdfs bhbebitds mb mfstfiãçd? (;) dòbgtd md gditrktd ‗

prbstkãçd mb kgtfvfmkmb du d`tbiãçd mb rbsuhtkmd1 (0) rbhkgfdikebitd bitrb ks

pkrtbs ‗ su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk (gde k gdrrbspdimb kutdrfmkmb b mfrbgãçd md sbrvfmd)

du kutdidefk.

id gditrktd mb trk`khjd, jë uek su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk md prbstkmdr,

qub bstë pdr mbitrd mk drckifzkãçd, mbvbimd kpbiks uek kgtfvfmkmb

(d`rfckãçd mb ebfds) rbtrfùfãçd klbrb-sb be luiãçd mk

mfspdif`fhfmkmb mb tbepd mb trk`khjd

Id gditrktd mb prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãds jë uek d`rfckãçd mb rbsuhtkmd b

d prbstkmdr bstk mb ldrk mk drckifzkãçd md sbrvfmd k rbtrfùfãçd

kulbrb-sb be luiãçd md rbsuhtkmd

_diks Gfizbitks b Idvks ]bimïigfks? ik prëtfgk, euftks zdiks gfizbitks sb

kprbsbitke. Æ d qub kgditbgb qukimd k prbstkãçd md trk`khjd æ blbgtukmk gde

euftk kutdidefk, mflfgfhebitb sb mfvfskimd ds trkãds mk su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk. Wugbmb

tke`æe ids gksds be qub k prbstkãçd bstë euftd hfckmk kd rbsuhtkmd b içd î

kgtfvfmkmb be sf ebsek. ]ke`æe jdob be mfk bigditrkeds sfstbeks mb drckifzkãçd

beprbskrfkh be qub sb bs`ktb k jfbrkrqufk? kutdgditrdhd b kutd-drckifzkãçd md




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik ;=

pbssdkh ‗ d trk`khjkmdr æ ue cbstdr mk suk ldrãk mb trk`khjd, gde kephk hf`brmkmb b

grfktfvfmkmb.

^dr dutrd hkmd, id gditrktd mb prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãds, k kutdidefk md prbstkmdr içd æ

figdepktåvbh gde k bxbguãçd mb gbrtks mfrbgtfvks pbhd sbrvfmd ibe gde d gditrdhd

mbstb.

Gdighusçd ds grftærfds utfhfzkmds ik mfstfiãçd s÷ mçd uek fmbfk kprdxfekmk b

gdisbitbe crkmukãòbs qub euftks vbzbs içd bsghkrbgbe. D trk`khjd kut÷ided,

pkrk khbe mb sbr prbstkmd sd` d ekitd md rbcfeb hk`drkh, æ euftks vbzbs gdepktåvbh

gde k mfrbgãçd b k lfsgkhfzkãçd mb dutrbe. B æ lrbqubitbebitb fisbrfmk ik

drckifzkãçd beprbskrfkh (eæmfgd be ghåifgk prfvkmk b kmvdckmd be beprbsks). D

trk`khjd kut÷ided æ euftks vbzbs mfssdgfkmd mk d`rfckãçd mb rbsuhtkmd qub d

gkrkgtbrfzk.

Kfimk, tbe-sb gkefijkmd euftd pkrk k gjkekmk su`drmfikãçd gddrmbikmk k

pbssdk sbrvfmk `kstk-sb gde d gditrdhd md rbsuhtkmd lfikh md trk`khjd.

Be suek, jë jdob vbrmkmbfrks sftukãòbs efstks mb kutdidefk b su`drmfikãçd, tbimd

qub sb dptkr pdr uek du dutrk edmkhfmkmb mb gditrktd.

Kgrbsgb qub d prd`hbek æ ue mb rbcfeb. D gditrktd mb trk`khjd tbe ue rbcfeb

fepbrktfvd b mb drmbe pÿ`hfgk, sbimd qub bhb æ prfigfpkh b mbtbrefikitb ,

bstbimbimd-sb pbhk rbhkãçd gditrktukh. Kssfe, k rbhkãçd ouråmfgd-hk`drkh tbe ue

gkrëgtbr vfiguhåstfgd bivdhvb uek eumkiãk mb ikturbzk md pkrkmfcek

gditrktukhåstfgd ‗ pbrpbtuk k rbhkãçd ebsed gditrk k vditkmb mks pkrtbs. Æ fstd

ebsed qub sb prbtbimb bvftkr, kd ebsed tbepd qub sb tbitk bxkhtkr d prbmdeåifd

mk vditkmb qub prdpuhsfdik k luck kd gditrktd mb trk`khjd.

^rd`hbeks mb qukhflfgkãçd b k vditkmb mks pkrtbs. Eætdmds mb qukhflfgkãçd

^rbssupdstd mk kphfgkãçd mks idreks ouråmfgd-hk`drkfs æ k bxfstïigfk mb ue gditrktd

mb trk`khjd. Kssfe hbvkitke-sb ds sbcufitbs prd`hbeks?

mb qukhflfgkãçd b fmbitflfgkãçd md tfpd mb gditrktd mb trk`khjd gded

prbssupdstd mb kphfgkãçd mks idreks fiouitfvks b tutbhkr md trk`khjd

su`drmfikmd1

mb bvftkãçd mb lrkumb k bssbs mfspdsftfvds hbckfs1





mb rbsdhuãçd mb mÿvfmks be zdiks gfizbitks1

mb prdvk b suks mflfguhmkmbs pkrk qube prbtbimb vkhbr-sb md Mfrbftd md

]rk`khjd.

K tutbhk qub d Mfrbftd gdilbrb kd trk`khjkmdr su`drmfikmd b ds hfeftbs fepdstds î

bxtfiãçd md gditrktd mb trk`khjd hbvke î gditrktkãçd ldrk mbstb edmbhd,

mfssfeuhkimd pdr vbzbs vbrmkmbfrds gditrktds mb trk`khjd.

]beds sfikfs gditrërfds pdr ue hkmd, d prfigåpfd md krt. =>2¿ GG pbreftb k hf`brmkmb

gditrktukh1 pdr dutrd ds hfeftbs mk hbf bstk`bhbgb rbcrks tutbhkrbs b mb drmbe pÿ`hfgk

kd trk`khjd juekid b k fepbrktfvfmkmb mks ebseks idreks, figdepktåvbfs gde d

rbcfeb gfvfh.

\ditkmb mks pkrtbs b fepbrktfvfmkmb md Mfrbftd md ]rk`khjd? tbeds k

qubstçd mk lkhtk mb ekiflbstkãçd bxprbssk mb vfiguhkãçd pdr gditrktd

mb trk`khjd. K dpãçd pdr uek mbsfcikãçd qub kpditb pkrk ue

rbcfeb içd æ gdimfãçd mb hbcftfekãçd sulfgfbitb. K qukhflfgkãçd mk

ektærfk, ktæ pdrqub d rbcfeb æ fepbrktfvd, içd bstë ik mfspdif`fhfmkmb

mks pkrtbs. ]be rbhbvàigfk, eks k mdutrfik b ourfsprumïigfk sçd

uiàifebs? d tåtuhd du mbsfcikãçd md gditrktd içd sçd mbgfsfvds du

ebsed sulfgfbitbs.

^dr dutrd hkmd, b mfvbrskebitb, içd sbrë fhågftd îs beprbsks prdgurkrbe

tfpds ibcdgfkfs qub ckrkitke gdhk`drkãçd be tbreds mfvbrsds md

gditrktd mb trk`khjd. Ds prfvkmds pdmbe kmdptkr d rbcfeb mks ldreks

ouråmfgks qub bsgdhjbrke hfvrbebitb, pdrqub gdivbifbitbs kds sbus lfis.

Içd sb gdebtb ibijuek fhbckhfmkmb du lrkumb î hbf.

Dguhtkãçd md Gditrktd mb ]rk`khjd? euftks vbzbs, surcb ue rbkh fitbitd

mb dguhtkr ue vbrmkmbfrd gditrktd mb trk`khjd, gde ks suks

gkrkgtbråstfgks, kpbiks pdrqub d sbu rbcfeb içd sbrvb ds fitbrbssbs mb,

pbhd ebids, uek mks pkrtbs, klkstkimd ds blbftds lkvdrëvbfs qub d

Drmbikebitd gdigbmb î gditrkpkrtb, ekfs mæ`fh.

K drmbe ouråmfgk içd pdmb pbreftfr qub bssk ekid`rks prbvkhbãke. Içd jë

qukhflfgkãçd md ibc÷gfd pdr brrd, b içd jë sfeuhkãçd, pdfs içd sb qubr bickikr

tbrgbfrds? d qub sb prbtbimb æ klkstkr ds `biblågfds gdigbmfmds î pkrtb ekfs lrkgk.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik ;<

Bssbs ibc÷gfds sçd fivkhfmkmds pbhd Drmbikebitd. Md ebsed edmd, içd æ hågftd

dguhtkr ue gditrktd mb prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãds sd` d lkhsd ekitd mb gditrktd mb

trk`khjd. Ibstb gksd jkvbrë sfeuhkãçd be prbouåzd mk Wbcurkiãk Wdgfkh.

K dguhtkãçd mk hk`drkhfmkmb b k fimfspdif`fhfmkmb md tfpd? lkhk k

mdutrfik, k bstb prdp÷sftd, be fimfspdif`fhfmkmb md tfpd. Ds

beprbckmdrbs edmbke d tftuhd gditrktukh mk rbhkãkd mb edmd k

dguhtkr k hk`drkhfmkmb b ekifpuhke d pr÷prfd idebi oÿrfs md gditrktd.

Bitbimb-sb cbrkhebitb qub d Mfrbftd pbreftb kd oufz fitbcrkr ds lkgtds rbkfs id qukmrd

gdigbftukh md gditrktd mb trk`khjd, mbsgdisfmbrkimd ekifpuhkãòbs id tåtuhd kpdstd

kd gditrktd. Kssfe, içd sb vfiguhke î qukhflfgkãçd gditrktukh md tåtuhd. B kcdrk,

`biblfgfk mk koumk mb grftærfds gdistkitbs md krt. ;0¿ G].

D prd`hbek md idebi furfs md tåtuhd md gditrktd? fivdgk-sb euftd d prfigåpfd mk

rbkhfmkmb b pòbe be rbhbvd k ektbrfkhfmkmb mk rbhkãçd, be mbtrfebitd mk

‘rbkhfmkmb― ldrekh gdistkitb md tåtuhd. Wb k mbsfcikãçd md tåtuhd ldssb mbgfsfvk, k

tutbhk mds trk`khjkmdrbs gdistkitb md rbcfeb sbrfk bsvkzfkmk.

Eks d prd`hbek kssueb ekfdr gdephbxfmkmb? içd sb trktk kpbiks mk frrbhbvàigfk md

idebi furfs md gditrktd (Kg÷rmçd W]O ;3/Z/0>>3 içd sbimd mbgfsfvd, tbe rbhbvd, oë

qub pdmb kpditkr iue mbtbrefikmd sbitfmd mk vditkmb). K bstfpuhkãçd md tfpd tbe

ue fepdrtkitb gditbÿmd pbrgbptfvd b içd pdmb sbr klkstkmk gde hfcbfrbzk. Æ qub k

bsgdhjk mb ue tfpd ibcdgfkh bivdhvb uek vditkmb id sbitfmd mb su`ebtbr (du içd)

bssb gditrktd k ue rbcfeb bspbgålfgd. ^bhd qub d prd`hbek sb pòb id phkid mk

kutdidefk ibcdgfkh hf`brmkmb mb bstfpuhkãçd b mb bsgdhjk md rbcfeb, `be gded

mk pr÷prfk blfgëgfk prd`kt÷rfk mds mdguebitds qub su`sgrbvbe.

^rd`hbeks mk ldrek b prdvk? k ldrek bsgrftk kmdptkmk b k mbsfcikãçd ldrekh

kmdptkmk sbrvb gded prdvk mbssb ebsed gditrktd (prdvk ‗ Km prd`ktfdibe +

vkhfmkmb md gditrktd/ibcdgfd ouråmfgd ‗ km su`stkitfke). Æ qub k ldrek grfk uek

kpkrïigfk rbhbvkitb pkrk d Mfrbftd, `be gded d gdisbisd mks pkrtbs. Eks d

prd`hbek æ dutrd? sk`br sb k vditkmb mbghkrkmk æ vkhfmk, gdisbcufimd klkstkr ue

rbcfeb fepbrktfvd. K rbspdstk içd pdmb sbr sbiçd uek? k fiouitfvfmkmb mks idreks

içd pdmb sbr klkstkmk pbhk vditkmb mks pkrtbs.





Içd bscdtk d prd`hbek mfzbr-sb qub k qukhflfgkãçd pbrtbigb kd oufz. Ik rbkhfmkmb, îs

pkrtbs içd bstë vbmkmd k prëtfgk mb ibc÷gfds mb kgbrtkebitd du mb gbrtflfgkãçd

pbhds qukfs sb fmbitflfgk k ikturbzk mb ue ibc÷gfd.

\ditkmb mks ^krtbs b Fepbrktfvfmkmb md Mfrbftd md ]rk`khjd? Içd sb trktk mb ibckr

sfephbsebitb k rbhbvàigfk mk kutdidefk gditrktukh. K kgtfvfmkmb æ ik rbkhfmkmb

prbstkmk be tbreds mb trk`khjd b içd mb prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãd b sb prbtbimb klkstkr

d rbcfeb hbckh pbrtfibitb. Ds trf`uikfs prdgurke rbsdhvbr k qubstçd pbhd prfigåpfd mk

pdssf`fhfmkmb mb gdrrfcfr k fibxkgtk qukhflfgkãçd mds gditrkbitbs mk rbkhfmkmb

su`okgbitb. Ebsed ids gksds mb fitbiãçd lrkumuhbitk idrekhebitb içd sb trktk mb

qukhflfgkãçd brr÷ibk eks mk qukhflfgkãçd prbtbimfmk, kfimk qub vfgfkmk. Ibe pdr

fssd d prd`hbek pdmb sbr rbsdhvfmd pdr kphfgkãçd mb bsqubeks hfckmds î vditkmb du

î kvbrfcukãçd mk vbrmkmbfrk vditkmb mks pkrtbs. D idebi furfs biqukitd

bxpbmfbitb bickidsd mbvb sbr gdisfmbrkmd frrbhbvkitb pkrk d Mfrbftd pdfs d qub

fitbrbssk æ k ektbrfkhfmkmb mk rbhkãçd mb sbrvfãd.

D pditd æ d mb k ektbrfkhfmkmb mk sftukãçd mb su`drmfikãçd bivdhvbr uek pdsfãçd

ouråmfgk qub bstë vfiguhkmk k uek prdtbgãçd hbckh. K kphfgk`fhfmkmb mks idreks mb

trk`khjd rbsuhtk mk suk fepbrktfvfmkmb pr÷prfk, be k`sdhutd, fimbpbimbitb qubr mk

vditkmb qubr mk qukhflfgkãçd mks pkrtbs.

Fepbrktfvfmkmb md ]fpd ‚‖G]‖‖? K gdrrbspdimïigfk ektbrfkh b su`stkitfvk mb ue

gditrktd kd tfpd hbckh ‚gditrktd mb trk`khjd‖ mbtbrefik k kphfgkãçd md edmbhd

rbcuhktfvd gdistkitb mks hbfs mb trk`khjd. Eks æ kpbiks fstd k fmbfk mb

fimfspdif`fhfmkmb md tfpd, oë qub kds gditrkbitbs æ hågftd kmdptkrbe ds tfpds

gditrktukfs qub gdisfmbrbe kmbqukmds kds sbus fitbrbssbs. Kpbiks ibstb sbitfmd d

tfpd gditrktd mb trk`khjd æ fepbrktfvd.

[ukhflfgkãçd pbhd Eætdmd ]fpdh÷cfgd? [ukitd î qukhflfgkãçd mk rbhkãçd ibcdgfkh æ

ibgbssërfd qub sb vbrflfqube fimågfds qub rbvbhbe k kutdrfmkmb b drckifzkãçd md

beprbckmdr d qub sb tdrik fimfspbisëvbh pkrk gditrk-mfstficufr d gditrktd mb trk`khjd

mb dutrks edmkhfmkmbs gditrktukfs.

[ukhflfgkãçd pbhd Eætdmd Fimfgfërfd? ^dmbeds gbrtkebitb lkhkr mk ibgbssfmkmb mb

bhbebitds bssbigfkfs b mb pbsqufsk mb åimfgbs mb tfpd.

K idssk ourfsprumïigfk jbsftk bitrb d eætdmd tfpdh÷cfgd b d fimfgfërfd kphfgkimd uek

ebtdmdhdcfk mb mfsgussçd gråtfgk mds åimfgbs pkrk tbstkr k gkrkgtbrfzkãçd mk rbhkãçd.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik ;:

Id phkid qukhflfgktfvd, vbrflfgke-sb ik prëtfgk ourfsprumbigfkh trïs edebitds mfstfitds

kfimk qub gdibxfdikmds?

id prfebfrd fimfvfmukhfzke-sb ds fimågfds mb su`drmfikãçd be luiãçd mb

k`strkgtk qukhflfgkãçd ‚gditrktd mb trk`khjd‖,

id sbcuimd jë uek gdigrbtk fmbitflfgkãçd pkrk gbrtflfgkr ik rbhkãçd

be gkusk k bxfstïigfk du içd mbssbs fimågfds.

Kvkhfkãçd chd`kh mds fimågfds \uhckrfzdu-sb ue eætdmd mb gditrdhd

eÿhtfphd.

Ds fimågfds ibe sbeprb gdistftube gkrkgtbråstfgks mb su`drmfikãçd du mb kutdidefk,

mbvbimd prdgbmbr-sb k ue ouåzd mb pdimbrkãçd sd`rb k chd`khfmkmb mds fimågfds

rbhbvkitbs vbrflfgkmds b k suk prbvkhïigfk. K su`drmfikãçd æ ue gdigbftd ouråmfgd qub

trkmuz k bspbgfkh edmkhfmkmb be qub æ rbkhfzkmk k prbstkãçd md trk`khjd.

Ik prëtfgk, k su`drmfikãçd tbe cbrkhebitb trkmuãçd ik ldrek gded sb gdilfcurke

mbtbrefikmds kspbgtds mk rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd. K prbsbiãk mb uek prbstkãçd

drckifzkmk pbhd grbmdr sbrvfrë mb fimågfd mk su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk. ^bhd gditrërfd, sb k

prbstkãçd içd ldr bxbgutkmk ibstbs edhmbs tkh fimfgfkrë uek sftukãçd mb kutdidefk.

Ds fiågfds mdutrfikhebitb ekfs rbhbvkitbs sçd?

;. Drckifzkãçd md trk`khjd? sb æ md pr÷prfd qub mbsbepbijk (t.kutdided), sb æ

dutrbe (t.su`drmfikmd)

0. Pbsuhtkmd md trk`khjd? sb d gditrktd tbe be vfstk d rbsuhtkmd (].kutdided), sb

tbe be vfstk ktfvfmkmb be sf ebsek (t. su`drmfikmd)

7. ̂ rdprfbmkmbs mds fistruebitds mb trk`khjd? sb pbrtbigbe kd trk`khjkmdr (kutd)

=. Huckr md trk`khjd? sb bstb pbrtbigb kd trk`khjkmdr (t.kutdided), sb içd fimfgfk-

sb su`drmfikãçd, sd`rbtumd sb k ktfvfmkmb ldr bxbrgfmk ik beprbsk

2. Jdrërfd mb trk`khjd? bxfstïigfk mb ue jdrërfd mblfifmd pbhk pbssdk k qube sb

prbstk k ktfvfmkmb ue mds ekfs ldrtbs fimågfds mb t. su`drmfikmd

<. Pbtrf`ufãçd? bxfstïigfk mb uek rbtrf`ufãçd gbrtk î jdrk, kd mfk, î sbekik du kd

eïs fimfgfk t. su`drmfikmd, biqukitd d pkckebitd î pbãk, gdefssçd du pdr prdmutd





kgk`kmd fimfgfk trk`khjd kutdided.

3. Dutrds fimågfds gded k qukhfmkmb mks pkrtbs, bxbrgågfd md pdmbr mfsgfphfikr,

fisbrãçd ik gdeuifmkmb mb pbssdkh, bxghusfvfmkmb du içd mk prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãd.

\ërfds kspbgtds tïe sfmd vkhdrkmds gded fimågfds mb gkrëgtbr ldrekh b bxtbrid?

rbcfeb lfsgkh, rbcfeb mb sbcurkiãk sdgfkh k qub sb bstë su`ebtfmd.

K prbsuiãçd mb hk`drkhfmkmb

Mbsmb d G] qub d hbcfshkmdr kssueb uek pbrspbgtfvk mb bvftkãçd mb lrkumbs b tbimb

k lkgfhftkr k prdvk mk rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd be trf`uikh mbvfmd îs mflfguhmkmbs md oë

rblbrfmd eætdmd fimfgfërfd kpbiks pbhk prbsbiãk mb khcuis fimågfds b, id hfeftb, k

bstk`bhbgbrbe-sb prbsuiãòbs.

K hk`drkhfmkmb bxprbssk ik su`drmfikãçd ouråmfgk içd sb kprbsbitk gded qubstçd mb

lkgtd eks kitbs gded qubstçd mb mfrbftd. D qub sb pkssk æ qub k hbf më pditds mb

kpdfd kd oufz b khcueks vbzbs ks prbsuiãòbs hbckfs mçd gded prbsuefmks içd kpbiks

lkgtukhfmkmbs eks sftukãòbs ouråmfgks pkrk k bxfstïigfk mks qukfs `kstk prdvkr d lkgtd

prbvfstd ik hbf.

D krt. ;0¿ prbtbimb lkgfhftkr kd trk`khjkmdr k mbedistrkãçd oumfgfkh qub hjb gueprk

pkrk sb prfvfhbcfkr mk tutbhk mks idreks mb trk`khjd b kfimk uek luiãçd id phkid

prd`kt÷rfd mb lkgfhftkãçd pkrk d prbstkmdr mb sbrvfãd mk mbedistrkãçd mk rbhkãçd

mb trk`khjd. D krt. ;0¿ tbe uek luiãçd hbcftfekmdrk md eætdmd mb qukhflfgkãçd mk

rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd ktrkvæs mb ue ouåzd chd`kh sd`rb ds vërfds fimågfds rbhbvkitbs

murkitb k vfcïigfk mk rbhkãkd.

K tkrblk æ mbhfgkmk b d hbcfshkmdr içd pdmb bstk`bhbgbr uek prbsuiãçd lrditkh pkrk

ds gksds mb mÿvfmk sd`rb k hk`drkhfmkmb mk rbhkãçd md tfpd pr÷ hdgktdrb. D qub d

hbcfshkmdr prbtbimb æ khfcbfrkr ds bigkrcds mbedistrktfvds, du sbok, æ uek pkrgfkh

mfspbisk du hf`brkãçd mb prdvk pbhk qukh d hbcfshkmdr sb gditbitk gde k

mbedistrkãçd mb khcueks gfrguistàigfks qub fimfgfke bssk ebsek su`drmfikãçd.

Ks gkrkgtbråstfgks fimfgkmks iks khåibks k) b m) gdrrbspdimbe k sftukãòbs qub be

cbrkh b mb kgdrmd gde ouåzds mb bxpbrfïigfk sçd pr÷prfks, kfimk qub içd bxghusfvks

mk rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd. K rbhkgfdikmk ik khåibk b) içd tbe gkrëgtbr cbrkh b æ

bxtrbekebitb pkrtfguhkrfzkmk? içd æ tkitd uek gkrkgtbråstfgk eks ue pkrkmfcek mk

sftukãçd hk`drkh. Mb qukhqubr edmd, be tdmds ds gksds bstbs fimågfds mbvbe sbr

pdimbrkmds be gdigrbtd b mb kgdrmd gde k tfpfgfmkmb sdgfkh.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik 0>

K hbf mfz qub sb prbsueb k bxfstïigfk mb khcueks mks vërfks gkrkgtbråstfgks eks æ

krcuebitd hftbrkh içd euftd gdivfigbitb ‗ pdmb `kstkr uek! D hbcfshkmdr içd

bitbimb qub qube tbe mb mbedistrkr k rbhkãçd hk`drkh kpbiks khbcub muks mks

gkrkgtbråstfgks fimfgkmks eks kitbs qub bxpdijk gde gdephbtumb tdmds ds lkgtds mb

dimb pdssk mbgdrrbr k fisbrãçd drckifzktfvk b k mfrbgãçd pktrdikh.

^dmb d prbstkmdr mb sbrvfãds mbedistrkr ks vërfks khfbiks md krt. ;0¿/0 b k pbssdk

sbrvfmk prdvkr k crktuftfmkmb md sbrvfãd gksd be qub içd jkvbrë gditrktd mb

trk`khjd.

Be rbcrk, æ kd trk`khjkmdr qub prbtbimb `biblfgfkr mk tutbhk pr÷prfk md rbcfeb

hk`drkh qube tbe mb mbedistrkr k bxfstïigfk md gditrktd mb trk`khjd b ds sbus trkãds

gkrkgtbråstfgds sd` kutdrfmkmb b id àe`ftd mk drckifzkãçd, iuek ldrek mb

su`drmfikãçd drckifzktfvk pkrk k qukh kpditk d krt. ;;¿ G].

Ds trf`uikfs tïe mbsmb jë euftd prdgurkmd bvftkr sftukãòbs mb lrkumb, içd sb sbitfimd

vfiguhkmds î qukhflfgkãçd gditrktukh, gdistrufimd pkrk k qukhflfgkãçd lbftk

oumfgfkhebitb ue gdiouitd mb fimågfds ekfs gdephbtd b bxprbssfvd qub d qub gdistk

md krt. ;0¿.

Grftærfds pkrk k qukhflfgkãçd md gditrktd mb trk`khjd

D gdigbftd mb gditrktd mb trk`khjd gdistftuf uek gktbcdrfk drmbikmdrk

mk rbkhfmkmb pkrk lfis idrektfvds, `ksfgkebitb pkrk kphfgkãçd md rbcfeb

ourfmfgd qub hjb æ pr÷prfd.

Kpbskr mb tbrbe ks pkrtbs gdepbtïigfk rbcuhktfvk b qukhflfgktfvk ids

gditrktds be qub dutdrcke, id gksd mk rbhkãçd hk`drkh pbrtbigb kd

trf`uikh be ÿhtfek kiëhfsb, k qukhflfgkãçd mk rbhkãçd fitbrgdrrbitb bitrb d

prbstkmdr mk kgtfvfmkmb b d mbhk `biblfgfërfd1

K su`drmfikãçd bivdhvb d`vfkebitb gdigbftds ouråmfgds fimbtbrefikmds

sbimd ibgbssërfd bigditrkr edmbhds b prdgbmbr k uek kvkhfkãçd1

Id phkid qukhflfgktfvd kpditke-sb mdfs edebitds mfstfitds, fimfvfmukhfzke-

sb ds fimågfds mb su`drmfikãçd be luiãçd mb k`strkgtk qukhflfgkãçd mb

gditrktd mb trk`khjd1 id sbcuimd jë uek gdigrbtk fmbitflfgkãçd pkrk

gbrtflfgkr ik rbhkãçd be gkusk k bxfstïigfk du içd mbssbs fimågfds1




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik 0;

Iue gksd gdigrbtd fitbrbssk k fmbitflfgkãçd mks gkrkgtbråstfgks mk

rbhkãçd murkmdurk bxfstbitb1

Figue`b kd prbstkmdr mbedistrkr k bxfstïigfk mb uek rbhkãçd lëgtfgk1

Be gksd mb dpdsfãçd kd gkrëgtbr hk`drkh md vfiguhd, d prbstkmdr pdmbrë

mbedistrkr gde fimågfds k bxfstïigfk mb uek rbkhfmkmb susgbptåvbh mb

bqufvkhbr kd gditrktd mb trk`khjd1

K bvdhuãçd hbcfshktfvk pdugd tbe trkzfmd mb idvd qukitd î qukhflfgkãçd

pbhds trf`uikfs md Mfrbftd md trk`khjd D G] rblbrb fimågfds qub vkhbe

gded grftærfds mb qukhflfgkãçd b lkgfhftke k gdeprdvkãçd mk bxfstïigfk

mk rbhkãkd mb trk`khjd. Wb d prbstkmdr mk ktfvfmkmb gdisbcufr mbedistrkrekfs md qub uek mks gkrkgtbråstfgks rbhkgfdikmks id krt. ;0¿/; `biblfgfkrk

mk prbsuiãçd mk bxfstïigfk mb gditrktd qukhflfgëvbh gded mb trk`khjd,

fivbrtbimd d ÷ius mk prdvk, b ikmk ekfs tbrë mb prdvkr, k ebids qub k

dutrk pkrtb trkck kd prdgbssd mkmds qub pdsske k`khkr k prbsuiãçd

lfrekmk.

D `biblfgfërfd mk kgtfvfmkmb pdmbrë mbstrufr k prbsuiãçd mk bxfstïigfk md

gditrktd mb trk`khjd pbhk prdvk mb lkgtds b gfrguistàigfks gkrkgtbråstfgds

mb kutdidefk1

K prbsbiãk mb fimågfds b mb gditrk-fimfgfds b k pr÷prfk prbsuiãçd md krt.

;0¿ b klfikh tdmk k ektærfk mb lkgtd gdeprdvkmk mbstfike-sb k pbreftfr

kd oufz kphfgkr ue grftærfd mb qukhflfgkãçd gded hk`drkh mk sftukãçd mb

lkgtd kpurkmk ids kutds.

Be suek, k gdrrbspdimïigfk ektbrfkh b su`stkitfvk mb uek rbhkãçd kd tfpd hbckh mbgditrktd mb trk`khjd fepòb k kphfgkãçd md edmbhd rbcuhktfvd fepbrktfvd mks hbfs md

trk`khjd.

D krt. ;0¿/; mbstfik-sb k lkgfhftkr k rbsdhuãçd mb mdfs prd`hbeks?

[ukhflfgkãkd mk rbhkãkd gditrktukh pkrk blbftds mk kphfgkãçd md M]

^rdvk qub sb bigditrk k gkrcd md trk`khjkmdr





ûifãçd mk Lrkumb? ds iÿebrds qub sb sbcube kd ;0¿/; mbstfike-sb î puifãkd mb

lrkumbs pbhk grfkãkd mb kpkrbigfks G] puib gde crkvfmkmb k prbstkãkd mb

ktfvfmkmb mfssfeuhkmk gde kpkrbigfk mb kutdidefk (;0¿/7 b =), rbspdisk`fhfzkimd d

beprbckmdr sdhfmkrfkebitb pbhd pkckebitds mks gdfeks pkrk khbe md cbrbitb,

kmefifstrkmd du mfrbgtdr, ks sdgfbmkmbs qub sb bigditrbe be rbhkãòbs mb

pkrtfgfpkãòbs rbgfprdgks mb mdeåifd du mb crupd. ^dmbimd kfimk sbr uek gditrk

drmbikãçd euftd crkvb ‗ ;0/0.

Grfsb md Gdigbftd mb Wu`drmfikãçd? D crkimb prd`hbek mds idssds mfks æ d mk

fitbcrkãçd du içd fitbcrkãçd id Mfrbftd md trk`khjd mks vërfks ldreks mb trk`khjd

kut÷ided qub sb mbstkgkrke md sfstbek gdeue md trk`khjd. D lbi÷ebid tbe?

ue hkmd vfrtudsd? grbsgbitb mdeåifd md trk`khjkmdr sd`rb k prdmuãkd

ue hkmd vfgfdsd qub tbe k vbr gde k mbsprdtbgãçd mb gbrtd tfpd mb

kgtfvfmkmbs (bx? pksske k sbr pkcks î pbãk fivbrtbimd d rfsgd qub trkisftk

pkrk d prbstkmdr mk ktfvfmkmb, qub lfgk sbe ckrkitfk mb qukhqubr

sbcurkiãk md beprbcd)

^dmbeds bigkrkr uek dutrk sftukãçd bitrb d mfrbftd gfvfh b d hk`drkh pkrk biqukmrkr

sftukãòbs mb mbpbimïigfk içd su`drmfikmk.

0. Wuobftds ‗ beprbckmdr b trk`khjkmdr

F ‗ Beprbckmdr (Bitfmkmb Beprbckmdrk)1 K Beprbsk

Idãçd mb beprbckmdr? Mbsfcik-sb ue mds suobftds md gditrktd mb trk`khjd? kqubhb

qub id gditrktd æ grbmdr mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd, qub k mfrfcb b drfbitk,

fitbcrkimd-k ik suk drckifzkãçd b æ mbvbmdr mk rbtrfùfãçd, gk`bimd-hjb uek

pdsfãçd mdefikitb sfeætrfgk î pdsfãçd mb su`drmfikãçd.

Beprbckmdr, pktrçd mk beprbsk1 gjblb mb beprbsk b beprbsërfd? Ibe sbeprb ks

sdgfbmkmbs tïe uek bxprbssçd fimfvfmukh trkmuzfmk pdr «pktrçd± du «pktròbs

mdefikitbs±, khfës, kvuhtk iks crkimbs sdgfbmkmbs k bxfstïigfk mb uek bstruturk

tbgidgrëtfgk mb qub rbsuhtk ue gdisfmbrëvbh klkstkebitd bitrb k tftuhkrfmkmb ldrekh

mds gditrktds mb trk`khjd b d bxbrgågfd blbgtfvd mds pdmbrbs pktrdikfs. D

kpkckebitd mk lfcurk mb pktrçd± sugbmbu k grbsgbitb fepdrtàigfk mk fmbfk mb

beprbsk. ^dr fssd sb tbe mftd qub k beprbsk mbfxdu mb sbr dòbgtd md mdeåifd

k`sdhutd md rbspbgtfvd tftuhkr, ldrãkmd k pkrtfhjkr ds sbus pdmbrbs gde ds ebe`rds mk

gdeuifmkmb mb trk`khjd, du k kgbftkr k filhuïigfk ik beprbsk mb gditrkpdmbrbs. D

G÷mfcd mks sdgfbmkmbs gdebrgfkfs, krt. <=¿, vbe mbtbrefikr qub k kmefifstrkãçd

mbvb kgtukr tbimd be gditk ds fitbrbssbs mk sdgfbmkmb b mds kggfdifstks eks





tke`æe ds mds trk`khjkmdrbs.

D prdprfbtërfd mk beprbsk tdridu-sb ue sfephbs ldribgbmdr mb gkpftkfs pksskimd k

pýr-sb be bvfmïigfk d ekikcbebit qub tdeks ks mbgfsòbs. Gditumd, bssk

fepbssdkhfmkmb ibe sbeprb æ mdefikitb? k pr÷prfk pbrspbgtfvk fistftugfdikh pdstuhk

uek kutdrfmkmb suprbek fimfvfmukh, mbtfmk pdr uek pbssdk låsfgk qub æ k lfcurk md

gjblb mk beprbsk. Mb qukhqubr edmd, ebsed ibstb gksd d pktrçd du k bitfmkmb

beprbckmdrk sbrçd sbeprb ourfmfgkebitb k sdgfbmkmb b içd d kmefifstrkmdr.

D beprbsërfd tbe gkmk vbz ekfs ue sbitfmd prdlfssfdikh mbsfcikimd ds ebe`rds md

ekikcbebit, du sbok ds kmefifstrkmdrbs du mfrbtdrbs mk beprbsk (cbstdrbs) qub

dgupke ds huckrbs mb mfrbãçd mks beprbsks sbe pkrk bhks gditrf`ufr gde gkpftkh.

Khcuis mbssbs beprbsërfds sçd ebsed, ourfmfgkebitb, trk`khjkmdrbs.

^krk d Mfrbftd md trk`khjd tdrik-sb ibgbssërfd fmbitflfgkr d grbmdr mk prbstkãçd md

trk`khjd b pkrk fssd içd `kstke ks idãòbs mb beprbsk, mb gjblb mb beprbsk be

qub sçd bigk`bãkmds ds mfrbftds b mbvbrbs rbhktfvds î beprbsk b ks rbhkãòbs mb

trk`khjd ibhk supdstks. Ibssk ebmfmk, k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk sbrë k sdgfbmkmb

gdebrgfkh b içd ds gdisbhjds mb kmefifstrkãçd qub sçd kpbiks ÷rcçds mks pbssdks

gdhbgtfvks. Kssfe, k eumkiãk mk pbssdk ouråmfgk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk be pdugd

klbgtk k pdsfãçd md trk`khjkmdr qukimd su`sfstb k beprbsk.

^hurkhfmkmb mb beprbckmdrbs

Crupds Bgdi÷efgds du Crupds mb Beprbsk? Be rbcrk, d gditrktd mb trk`khjd

ldrekhebitb bxfstb bitrb d trk`khjkmdr b uek ÿifgk sdgfbmkmb mbssb crupd. Ibstbs

gksds æ lrbqubitb qub k pdsfãçd md trk`khjkmdr sbok mblfifmk uiftkrfkebitb be lkgb

md bsqubek mb crupd, kpbskr mb bstb sbr gdistftuåmd pdr pbssdks ouråmfgks mfvbrsks.

^rd`hbeks Bspbgålfgds md ]rk`khjd pkrk Crupds mb Beprbsks? ^dmb kgditbgbr qub

mbitrd md crupd ds trk`khjkmdrbs sboke trkislbrfmds mb uek sdgfbmkmb pkrk dutrk

ibgbssërfds kd mbsbivdhvfebitd, pdrqub sb prbtbimb mfefiufr ds gustds mk ekd mb

d`rk mb uek mks sdgfbmkmbs du pdrqub sb qubr mdtkr dutrk sdgfbmkmb mds

bspbgfkhfstks ibgbssërfds kd mbsbivdhvfebitd mb idvks ktfvfmkmbs.

^dr mbtrës mk mbshdgkãçd md trk`khjkmdr pdmbe tke`æe bstkr edtfvds ebids

trkispkrbitbs, vfskimd k su`stftufãçd md beprbckmdr be sbitfmd ouråmfgd ldrekh hfeftkr

rbspdisk`fhfmkmbs id qub sb rblbrb kd pbssdkh md sbrvfãd d pktrfe÷ifd mks

sdgfbmkmbs æ be prfigfpfd kutdided b k rbspdisk`fhfmkmb mds s÷gfds hfeftkmk, d qub

pdmb pbreftfr trkislbrïigfks qub bvbitukhebitb prboumfqube ds trk`khjkmdrbs.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik 0=

Mb qukhqubr edmd, tbimb-sb jdob k uek rbspdisk`fhfzkãçd md crupd (krt. 77=¿).

^dr dutrd hkmd, jë dutrd tfpd mb trkislbrïigfk, k qub ebhjdr gk`b k mbsfcikãçd mb

gbmïigfk idebkmkebitb k ibgbssfmkmb mb kgdrmd md trk`khjkmdr mbstkgkmd (krt.

06>¿, b)).

Mbtbrefikãçd md Beprbckmdr Pbkh? æ ibgbssërfd k skhvkcukrmkr k fmbitfmkmb mk

rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd b uek gbrtk rbspdisk`fhfzkãçd md crupd. K rbcrk mb qub sb pkrtb

æ k mk ekiutbiãçd mk kutdidefk ouråmfgk, d qub fephfgk qub d trk`khjkmdr s÷ sbrë

gdisfmbrkmd vfiguhkmd îqubhk sdgfbmkmb gde qube bstk`bhbgbu d gditrktd mb

trk`khjd. Ibstbs gksds oustflfgk-sb kmdptkr uek sdhuãçd qub gdimuz kd qub sb gjkek

k mbsgdisfmbrkãçd mk pbrsdikhfmkmb mb ldrek k ckrkitfr qub d trk`khjkmdr içd lfqub

prboumfgkmd (içd sb gdisfmbrk k kutdidefk mds suobftds beprbckmdrbs be prbsbiãk

b mb gkmk uek mks rbhkãòbs ouråmfgks hk`drkfs)

Gditrktd gde phurkhfmkmb mb beprbckmdrbs? d trk`khjkmdr pdmb d`rfckr-sb k prbstkr

trk`khjd k vërfds beprbckmdrbs bitrb ds qukfs bxfstk uek rbhkãçd mb gdhfckãçd

sdgfbtërfk rbhbvkitb du pkrtfhjk mb bstruturks drckifzktfvks gdeuis bitrb ds

beprbckmdrbs.- krt. ;>;¿ G].

Bstkeds be lkgb mb ue ÿifgd våiguhd gditrktukh qub hfck d trk`khjkmdr k uek

phurkhfmkmb mb bitfmkmbs pdrqub gde bstb prbgbftd sb pbreftb k prbstkãçd md

trk`khjd sfeuhtkibkebitb k vërfds beprbckmdrbs. Ds vërfds beprbckmdrbs sçd

sdhfmkrfkebitb rbspdisëvbfs pbhd gueprfebitd mks d`rfckãòbs qub mbgdrrbe md

gditrktd mb trk`khjd. K vfdhkãçd mds rbqufsftds gdilbrb kd trk`khjkmdr d mfrbftd mb

dptkr pbhd beprbckmdr rbhktfvkebitb kd qukh lfgkrk vfiguhkmd. Gbsskimd k rbhkãkd

sdgfbtërfk, d trk`khjkmdr lfgk uifgkebitb vfiguhkmd kd beprbckmdr k qub sb rblbrb

;>;/; g). bxfstb k rbspdisk`fhfmkmb sdgfbtërfk md crupd pbhds mæ`ftds hk`drkfs mk

bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk.

]rk`khjd sfeuhtàibd pkrk ue crupd fildrekh mb beprbckmdrbs

D krt. ;>;¿ kphfgk-sb tke`æe k beprbckmdrbs, fimbpbimbitbebitb mk ikturbzk

sdgfbtërfk, qub ekitbijke bstruturks drckifzktfvks gdeuis. ]kh sfciflfgk qub içd

`kstk k pkrtfhjk mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd eks æ ibgbssërfk uek pkrtfhjk mb ue

eåifed mb rbgursds. Ibstbs gksds, tke`æe ds beprbckmdrbs qub utfhfzke k prbstkãçd

mb trk`khjd sçd sdhfmkrfkebitb rbspdisëvbfs pbhd gueprfebitd mks d`rfckãòbs qub

mbgdrrbe md gditrktd.





Gbmïigfk dgksfdikh (krt. 0::¿)

]rktk-sb mb sftukãçd trfhktbrkh. Ibstks sftukãòbs, pdr bgdidefk mb ebfds, prbtbimb-sb

uek mfspdif`fhfzkãçd tbepdrërfk b bvbitukh mb trk`khjkmdr md qukmrd mb pbssdkh

pr÷prfd mb ue beprbckmdr pkrk dutrk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk k guod pdmbr mb

mfrbgãçd d trk`khjkmdr lfgk suobftd ekitbimd-sb d våiguhd gditrktukh fifgfkh. K

gbmïigfk s÷ æ hågftk sb sb vbrflfgkr uek ekiflbstkãçd mb vditkmb md trk`khjkmdr

pbrekibitb be sbr gbmfmd murkitb ue gbrtd prkzd içd supbrfdr k ue kid (rbidvëvbh

ktb 2kids). Ids tbreds md krt. 0:6¿/; tbe mb bxfstfr uek sftukãçd mb ldrtb gdibxçd

bitrb ks sdgfbmkmbs gbmbitb (kqubhk k qub bstk d trk`khjkmdr bstk vfiguhkmd) b

gbssfdiërfd (k qub utfhfzk d trk`khjd). K gbmïigfk ldrk mks gdimfãòbs be qub æ

kmefssåvbh (krt. 0:6) du sbe kgdrmd bitrb ds beprbckmdrbs gbmbitb b gbssfdiërfd

(06>) pkrk khbe mb lkguhtkr kd trk`khjkmdr fcidrkr k sftukãçd mb gbmïigfk b

gditfiukr kd sbrvfãd md beprbckmdr gbmbitb, gdilbrb-hjb d mfrbftd mb dptkr pbhk

pbrekiïigfk kd sbrvfãd gbssfdiërfd (060).D rbcfeb mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd bstë

prbvfstd id krt. 06;¿ d trk`khjkmdr gbmfmd tbe mfrbftd î rbtrfùfãçd b gdimfãòbs mb

trk`khjd mk beprbsk gbssfdiërfk. Gditumd, sb k rbtrfùfãçd kulbrfmk id gbmbitb (du

kqubhk qub tbrfk mfrbftd be FPG] kphfgëvbh) ldr ekfs bhbvkmk tbrë mfrbftd k bssk

rbtrfùfãçd.

Gditrktds mb ldribgfebitd mb eçd-mb-d`rk du mb trk`khjd tbepdrërfd

Idãçd? Wbcuimd k DGMB d trk`khjd tbepdrërfd gdrrbspdimb î sftukãçd be qub uek

beprbsk bspbgfkhfzkmk gbmb k tftuhd dibrdsd b pdr tbepd hfeftkmd k dutrk beprbsk k

mfspdif`fhfmkmb mk ldrãk mb trk`khjd mb gbrtd iÿebrd mb trk`khjkmdrbs qub lfgke

luigfdikhebitb fitbcrkmds ik drckifzkãçd mk beprbsk utfhfzkmdrk.

Gfsçd mk ^dsfãçd ^ktrdikh? K B]] vkf gditrktkr b gbmbr ds trk`khjkmdrbs ibgbssërfds ds

qukfs prbvfkebitb sb d`rfckrke k mbsbepbijkr k suk kgtfvfmkmb kd utfhfzkmdr be

qubstçd sd` suk kutdrfmkmb b mfrbgãçd. D trk`khjd tbepdrërfd dpbrk uek gfsçd mk

pdsfãçd pktrdikh guods pdmbrbs sb rbpkrtbe bitrb k BR b k B]] sbimd ktrfùåmks î B]] k

quksb tdtkhfmkmb mks d`rfckãòbs pktrdikfs b kd utfhfzkmdr k quksb tdtkhfmkmb mks

rbspbgtfvks prbrrdcktfvks. D utfhfzkmdr gdrrb euftd ebids rfsgds mb gdisdhfmkãçd

ibgbssërfk md beprbcd sb rbgdrrbr î fitbrebmfkãçd qub hjb æ prdpdrgfdikmk pbhk

B]].

K vkitkcbe mk BR bstë be pdupkr ks mbspbsks fibrbitbs kd rbgrutkebitd b mfspdr mb

ue våiguhd prbgërfd pbhd qukh içd æ mfrbgtkebitb rbspdisëvbh pkrk sktfslkzbr uek

ibgbssfmkmb tbepdrërfk. D trk`khjd tbepdrërfd kprbsbitk uek bstruturk trfkicuhkrguods værtfgbs sçd? k) k beprbsk mb trk`khjd tbepdrërfd1 `) beprbsk utfhfzkmdrk1 g)




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik 0<

prbstkmdr mb trk`khjd.

K hbf gdimfgfdik k vkhfmkmb md gditrktd mb trk`khjd tbepdrërfd î tftuhkrfmkmb mk

hfgbiãk pkrk d bxbrgågfd mk kgtfvfmkmb pdr pkrtb mk beprbsk mb trk`khjd tbepdrërfd

(krt. ;37¿/;) bstk`bhbgbimd ue sfstbek qub prdgurk d`stkr ks bxgbssfvks

prbgkrfzkãòbs s÷ pbreftfimd k utfhfzkãçd mbstk ldrek mb trk`khjd be gksds bspbgfkfs

(krt. ;32¿). D G] prdgurk mblbimbr k pdsfãçd md trk`khjkmdr (krt. ;:2) qukimd sçd

mbsrbspbftkmds ds gdimfgfdikebitds hbckfs, pbreftb-sb kd trk`khjkmdr tbepdrërfd

gdisdhfmkr k suk pdsfãçd iue vfiguhd pbrekibitb mb trk`khjd idrekhebitb gde k

beprbsk utfhfzkmdrk, eks tke`æe gde k pr÷prfk beprbsk mb trk`khjd tbepdrkrfd

Ds mfvbrsds tfpds mb bitfmkmbs beprbckmdrks

Mfstfiãçd luimkebitkh bitrb bitfmkmbs beprbckmdrks qub bxbrgbe uek

beprbsk be sbitfmd hk`drkh (sdgfbmkmbs gdebrgfkfs be ideb fimfvfmukh,

beprbsks pu`hfgks) b bitfmkmbs beprbckmdrks qub içd bxbrgbe kgtfvfmkmb

beprbskrfkh (beprbckmdrbs mds trk`khjkmdrbs mb sbrvfãd mdebstfgd) bstkimd

idrekhebitb k hbcfshkãçd md trk`khjd gdigb`fmk be luiãçd mks bitfmkmbs

beprbckmdrks pbrtbigbitbs î prfebfrk gktbcdrfk1

̂ dmbrçd mfstficufr-sb ks bitfmkmbs beprbckmdrks md sbgtdr prfvkmd mks hfckmks

kd sbgtdr beprbskrfkh md Bstkmd, kpbskr mks rbhkãòbs bitrb bstks b ds

trk`khjkmdrbs gditfiukrbe k sbr mb ikturbzk prfvkmk, içd bstkimd su`ebtfmk

kd rbcfeb pr÷prfd mds trk`khjkmdrbs be luiãòbs pu`hfgks.

Mfebisçd gded beprbckmdrbs mks bitfmkmbs pktrdikfs euftd be`drk içd jkok

ibijue bstktutd sfciflfgktfvd bspbgfkh pkrk ks efgrd b pbqubiks beprbsks qub

gbrtks mfspdsfãòbs s÷ sb kphfqube îs bitfmkmbs beprbckmdrks gde ;>, 2> du 0>>

trk`khjkmdrbs kd sbu sbrvfãd.

KP]. ;>> ‗ ]fpflfgkãkd mk beprbsk be luiãçd md i¿ mb trk`khjkmdrbs

Efgrdbeprbsk -;> trk`khjkmdrbs

̂ bqubik beprbsk ;> k ‗ 2>

Ebmfk beprbsk 2> k ‗ 02>

Crkimb beprbsk + 02>

Jë gbrtks fsbiãòbs b lkgfhfmkmbs pkrk ks efgrdbeprbsks b be khcuis gksds tke`æe

pkrk ks pbqubiks beprbsks?





Id mfrbftd gdhbgtfvd rbcfstk-sb qub d mfrbftd î fildrekãçd b gdisuhtk mds

mbhbckmds sfimfgkfs içd æ kphfgëvbh b qub ks gdefssòbs mb

trk`khjkmdrbs bstçd hfeftkmds k 0 ebe`rds1

Id phkid md Mfrbftd Fitbrikgfdikh jë khfcbfrkebitd mks rbcrks qukitd î

drckifzkãçd md tbepd mb trk`khjd.

FF - D ]rk`khjkmdr

trk`khjkmdr ue mds suobftds (du pkrtbs) md gditrktd mb trk`khjd? prbgfskebitb

kqubhb qub ibssb gditrktd æ grbmdr mk rbtrf`ufãçd du skhërfd b mbvbmdr mk prbstkãçd

md trk`khjd su`drmfikmd, fstd æ, mk kgtfvfmkmb bxbgutkmk sd` ks drmbis md dutrd

gditrkbitb.

K prbstkãçd md trk`khjd tbe gkrëgtbr pbssdkh b æ sbeprb bxbgutkmk pdr pbssdk

låsfgk (pbssdk sficuhkr), gkrkgtbråstfgk jdob kssuefmk ik idãçd hbckh mb gditrktd mb

trk`khjd (krt. ;;¿ G]).

Be sbitfmd kephd sçd kfimk trk`khjkmdrbs ds qub prbstke trk`khjd kut÷ided, be

qub, gded vfeds, k prbstkãçd içd æ oë k kgtfvfmkmb be sf, eks d rbsuhtkmd mbssk

kgtfvfmkmb prbstkmk ldrk md àe`ftd mb fitbrvbiãçd mk pbssdk sbrvfmk. Pbhktfvkebitb

kds trk`khjkmdrbs kut÷ideds içd sb pòbe idrekhebitb prd`hbeks tçd mbhfgkmds

ibe ks bxfcïigfks mb idrekãçd pr÷prfks md trk`khjd su`drmfikmd, qub bxphfgke k

cæibsb md Mfrbftd md trk`khjd, bstkimd, pdrtkitd, bxghuåmds md àe`ftd mb prdtbgãçd

md Mfrbftd hk`drkh, k içd sbr ids gksds oë rblbrfmds, be qub, içd jkvbimd

mbpbimïigfk ouråmfgk, su`sfstb k mbpbimïigfk bgdi÷efgk rbhktfvkebitb k ue

beprbsërfd.

Iue sbitfmd kfimk ekfs kephd sçd kfimk trk`khjkmdrbs ds luigfdiërfds b kcbitbs md

Bstkmd, qub prbstke k suk kgtfvfmkmb gde `ksb iue våiguhd pu`hfgåstfgd mb åimdhb

mfvbrsk mds pr÷prfds md Mfrbftd md trk`khjd. K vbrmkmb æ qub ds qub jdob sb mbsfcike

pdr «trk`khjkmdrbs mk luiãçd pÿ`hfgk± mbsbepbijke k suk kgtfvfmkmb iue rbcfeb

qub tbe gkmk vbz ekfs ktfiïigfks gde d mds trk`khjkmdrbs su`drmfikmds.

Bspægfbs

Beprbckmds b Dpbrërfds (ghkssflfgkãçd trkmfgfdikh, jdob supbrkmk)?

mfstficufimd bitrb mfrfcbitbs, beprbckmds (gde trk`khjd

prbmdefikitbebitb fitbhbgtukh) b dpbrërfds (gde trk`khjd

prbmdefikitbebitb ekiukh).




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik 0:

Jë idreks qub hbvke be gditk k qukhfmkmb mb mfrfcbitb du, bitçd, k bxfstïigfk mb

ue våiguhd mb bspbgfkh gdilfkiãk. ^dmbrë kssfe gdisfmbrkr-sb k ghkssb mds

trk`khjkmdrbs mb khtk mfrbgãçd b be gdefssçd mb sbrvfãd, d qub bstë tke`æe hfckmd

k rbhkãòbs mb gdilfkiãk b pbssdkhfmkmb.

]ke`æe æ fepdrtkitb k mfstfiãçd bitrb ds trk`khjkmdrbs suobftds kd rbcfeb

gdeue b trk`khjkmdrbs be rbcfeb bspbgfkh, qub sçd ds qub tïe ue bstktutd

idrektfvd pr÷prfd (trk`khjkmdrbs mb sbrvfãd mdeæstfgd...).

Bxfstbe kfimk dutrks ghkssflfgkãòbs? trk`khjkmdrbs ebids, mb gkpkgfmkmb mb trk`khjd

rbmuzfmk ..

Idutrd phkid kvuhtke kfimk mfstfiãòbs pkrk mblfifr k sftukãçd mb bstk`fhfmkmb mds

trk`khjkmdrbs rbhktfvkebitb kd gditrktd mb trk`khjd? pdr bx., k kitfck ghkssflfgkãçd

mb trk`khjkmdrbs be trk`khjkmdrbs pbrekibitbs b bvbitukfs b uek dutrk mb fitbrbssb

kgtukh euftd sfciflfgktfvd ‗ trk`khjkmdrbs gditrktkmds gde b sbe prkzd.

[ukhflfgkãòbs su`obgtfvks md ]rk`khjkmdr

K Kitfcufmkmb

K gditfiufmkmb md sbrvfãd md trk`khjkmdr, idrekhebitb rblbrbigfkmk î ebsek

beprbsk, mbtbrefik-hjb uek gbrtk kitfcufmkmb gdeputkmk be kids mb sbrvfãd, kqukh më uek lfsfdidefk gdigrbtk bspbgfkh kds mfrbftds md trk`khjkmdr, pdtbigfkimd-

ds. Fstd kgditbgb prfigfpkhebitb qukitd îs fimbeifzkãòbs mbvfmks pdr bxtfiãçd md

gditrktd.

Bstbs blbftds mk kitfcufmkmb tïe `ksb id bivdhvfebitd prdcrbssfvd md trk`khjkmdr ik

beprbsk ‗ bxpbrfïigfk prdlfssfdikh kmqufrfmk, fitbcrkãçd b bsprft mb gdrps ‗

rbgdepbiskmd pbhd rbgdijbgfebitd mb ue bstktutd ekfs lkvdrëvbh b pbhk bspbgfkh

prdtbgãçd mk bstk`fhfmkmb md gditrktd, gdrrbspdimbimd kssfe î «bxpbgtktfvk mb

sbcurkiãk± md trk`khjkmdr .

K kitfcufmkmb pdmb tke`æe rbpdrtkr-sb k uek sftukãçd prdlfssfdikh bspbgålfgk

(kitfcufmkmb ik gktbcdrfk), mbtbrefikimd prdedãòbs d`rfckt÷rfks du dutrds blbftds

ik gkrrbfrk b, idrekhebitb be khtbriktfvk, kuebitds rbtrf`utfvds mb gkrëgtbr prfvktfvd

mb gkmk trk`khjkmdr be gkusk (mfuturifmkmbs? prbstkãòbs pbguifërfks

gdrrbspdimbitbs kd tbepd mb pbrekiïigfk be gbrtk gktbcdrfk ‗ krt. 0<0¾, 0, `)).





Krt. ;06¿/; o) k hbf prdå`b kd beprbckmdr k lrustrkãçd mb mfrbftds du ckrkitfks

mbgdrrbitbs mk kitfcufmkmb, ktrkvæs mk gbsskãçd b rbkmefssòbs, kfimk qub bxfstk

kgdrmd md trk`khjkmdr.

K Gktbcdrfk

D gdigbftd mb gktbcdrfk tbe vërfds sfciflfgkmds gde blbftds ourfmfgkebitb rbhbvkitbs,

pbhd qub æ bssbigfkh gdebãkr pdr mbsgrbvbr bssks vërfks kgbpãòbs.

Gktbcdrfk suòbgtfvk ‗ Be prfebfrd huckr, k gktbcdrfk gdrrbspdimb k uek qukhflfgkãçd

içd gditrktukh du præ-gditrktukh, bqufvkhbitb î prdlfssçd du jk`fhftkãçd prdlfssfdikh

gde rbhbvàigfk pkrk blbftds md tåtuhd prdlfssfdikh rbspbgtfvd (pdssb mb gkrtbfrk

prdlfssfdikh du mb gbrtflfgkãçd prdlfssfdikh) du pkrk fisgrfãçd be sfimfgktd

rbprbsbitktfvd mk prdlfssçd.

K gktbcdrfk trkmuz, ibstb sbitfmd, k pbrtbiãk k ue crupd prdlfssfdikh, jk`fhftkmd gde

gbrtks tægifgks mb `ksb b ue sk`br-lkzbr, b kfimk k ldrekãçd du jk`fhftkãçd

prdlfssfdikh (gbrtflfgkmk du içd) b ktæ gbrtks gdimfgfdikitbs mb ldrekãçd prdlfssfdikh.

Pblbrfeds kqufhd qub d trk`khjkmdr æ b sk`b lkzbr? pdmbrbeds lkhkr mb gktbcdrfk

suòbgtfvk k bstb prdp÷sftd. K hbcfshkãçd rblbrb euftks vbzbs bstbs kspbgtds pdr

«qukhflfgkãçd prdlfssfdikh±, «qukhflfgkãòbs± du «kptfmòbs±.

Bstk idãçd mb gktbcdrfk æ rbhbvkitb be tbreds gditrktukfs pdrqub jë euftks

kgtfvfmkmbs prdlfssfdikfs pkrk ks qukfs sb bxfcb ue tfpd prdlfssfdikh bspbgålfgd. D tåtuhd

qub gdilbrb bssks jk`fhftkãòbs pdmb sbr rbhbvkitb? æ d gksd mk kmvdgkgfk. K

kusïigfk mbssb tåtuhd, qukimd ibgbssërfd, mbtbrefik k fivkhfmkmb md gditrktd ‗ krt.

;;3¿/; G].

Gktbcdrfk dòbgtfvk du kgtfvfmkmb gditrktkmk ‗ Be sbcuimd huckr, k gktbcdrfk

rbprbsbitk d dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd, fstd æ, kqufhd qub d trk`khjkmdr bstë

gditrktukhebitb d`rfckmd k lkzbr. ]rktk-sb idrekhebitb md cæibrd mb tkrblks k

prbstkr pbhd trk`khjkmdr, cæibrd lfxkmd b fmbitflfgkmd gde rbgursd î gktbcdrfzkãçd b

luiãòbs mb ue prdlfssfdikh-tfpd. Mb lkgtd, d dòbgtd md gditrktd æ rblbrbigfkmd

idrekhebitb pbhk fmbfk bepårfgk mks luiãòbs mb ue trk`khjkmdr-tfpd.

K lfxkãçd md dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd tbe mb sb blbgtukr be lkgb mb muks

bxfcïigfks gditrkpdstks?

sb, pdr ue hkmd, ks ibgbssfmkmbs drckifzktfvks beprbskrfkfs b d pr÷prfd

bvdhufr mk tægifgk içd gdisbitbe k lfxkãçd fimfvfmukhfzkmk mb tdmds ds





sbrvfãds b dpbrkãòbs qub d trk`khjkmdr pdmb sbr gjkekmd k

mbsbivdhvbr,

pdr dutrd, ds prfigåpfds mb drmbe pÿ`hfgk hfckmds k skhvkcukrmk mk

pbrsdikhfmkmb md trk`khjkmdr b k ibgbssërfk mbtbrefik`fhfmkmb mk

prbstkãçd içd pbreftbe qub bhb sb pdssk gdeprdebtbr k lkzbr tumd.

Æ kssfe mbitrd mb hfeftbs qub sb lfxk d dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd. ^krk

rbprbsbitkr bssb tfpd mb cbiærfgd mb kgtfvfmkmb utfhfzk-sb euftks vbzbs k rblbrïigfk îs

luiãòbs mb uek gbrtk gktbcdrfk, fstd æ, ks luiãòbs mb uek gbrtk lfcurk prdlfssfdikh.

^dr dutrks pkhkvrks, pdmb mfzbr-sb qub d dòbgtd mk kgtfvfmkmb æ mblfifmd pbhd qub

«gdstuek lkzbr± be cbrkh ue prdlfssfdikh fmbitflfgkmd.

D dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd içd æ kpbiks d mks luiãòbs mb kmefssçd b ibe

sbqubr d md gditbÿmd luigfdikh md pdstd mb trk`khjd be qub d trk`khjkmdr æ

gdhdgkmd id fiågfd md gditrktd. Eks, kfimk qub d dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd

sbok trkãkmd mb edmd k bivdhvbr ue àe`ftd ekfs vkstd md qub ks luiãòbs mb

kmefssçd b k içd bxghufr ks pdssf`fhfmkmbs mb kprdvbftkebitd grbsgbitb pdr pkrtb mk

beprbsk, mb kgdrmd gde k bvdhuãçd mk bxpbrfïigfk md trk`khjkmdr b mk pr÷prfk

tbgidhdcfk, æ vkitkodsd d kpbhd k uek gktbcdrfk-tfpd pkrk mblfifr d rblbrfmd dòbgtd

mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjkmdr. K tkh gktbcdrfk qukmrk `be k mbsfcikãçd mb

gktbcdrfk dòbgtfvk, ik ebmfmk be qub k suk bxprbssçd vbr`kh gdistftuf ue «r÷tuhd±

du «såitbsb prdlfssfdikh± pkrk mblfifr d dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd.

D G÷mfcd md ]rk`khjd prdgurdu bvftkr d usd mk bxprbssçd «gktbcdrfk± pkrk mbsfcikr

mfrbgtkebitb d dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd mb trk`khjd. Kssfe, kd rblbrfr-sb kd dòbgtd md

gditrktd mb trk`khjd, d krt. ;;2¾/;, bstk`bhbgb qub «gk`b îs pkrtbs mbtbrefikr pdr

kgdrmd k kgtfvfmkmb pkrk qub d trk`khjkmdr æ gditrktkmd±, içd lkhkimd, k bstb

prdp÷sftd, ik gktbcdrfk gded edmd k`rbvfkmd mb mbhfeftkr bssk kgtfvfmkmb. Eks d

hbcfshkmdr mbvb tbr-sb mkmd gditk qub içd sbrfk prdprfkebitb lëgfh «mblfifr k

kgtfvfmkmb±, d qub be tbreds dòbgtfvds gdrrbspdimbrfk k uek biuebrkãçd mbluiãòbs du mb dpbrkãòbs du mb tkrblks, euftks vbzbs fepdssåvbh. ^dr fssd, hdcd k sbcufr,

d i¾ 0 md ebsed krt. ;;2¾ mfz qub k mblfifãçd mk kgtfvfmkmb pkrk qub d trk`khjkmdr æ

gditrktkmd «pdmb sbr lbftk pdr rbefssçd pkrk gktbcdrfk mb FPG] du mb rbcuhkebitd

fitbrid mk beprbsk±. B, tkhvbz ekfs sfciflfgktfvkebitb kfimk, rblbrb-sb id krt. ;;6.¾, ;, k

gktbcdrfk «pkrk qub sb bigditrk gditrktkmd± d trk`khjkmdr.

K kgtfvfmkmb b sbu qukmrd luigfdikh trkãke ds hfeftbs md pdmbr mfrbgtfvd md

beprbckmdr. Gded rbsuhtk md krt. ;;:¿/;, md G]P, «d trk`khjkmdr mbvb, be prfebfrd,

bxbrgbr luiãòbs gdrrbspdimbitbs î kgtfvfmkmb pkrk qub sb bigditrk gditrktkmd±.





Eks mbsmb hdcd sb kmfkitk qub k kgtfvfmkmb gditrktkmk, ebsed qukimd mbsgrftk pdr

rbefssçd pkrk k gktbcdrfk, «gdeprbbimb ks luiãòbs qub hjb sboke klfis du

luigfdikhebitb hfckmks, pkrk ks qukfs d trk`khjkmdr tbijk qukhflfgkãçd kmbqukmk b

qub içd fephfqube mbsvkhdrfzkãçd prdlfssfdikh± (i¿ 0).

D dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd gditrktukh æ trkãkmd mb edmd k bivdhvbr ue àe`ftd euftd

vkstd, ekfs vkstd d`vfkebitb qub ks luiãòbs mb kmefssçd.

Kssfe, d dòbgtd md gditrktd æ khcd mb euftd kephd b ibe sbqubr æ mb bxghufr qub

ibhb bstboke gditfmds k gkrrbfrk, d kpbrlbfãdkebitd b k grbsgbitb tbgifgfmkmb mks

luiãòbs prdebtfmks id fiågfd md gditrktd.

K cbstçd edmbrik supòb qub d trk`khjkmdr bstbok mbsbokvbhebitb kptd k

mbsbepbijkr uek euhtfphfgfmkmb mb pdstds mb trk`khjd b, mbsmb qub bstbs tbijke k

ebsek pdsfãçd id phkid mk jfbrkrqufk beprbskrfkh, içd sb vï rkzçd pkrk grfstkhfzkr d

dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd id prfebfrd pdstd mb trk`khjd dgupkmd. Ik rbkhfmkmb, d pr÷prfd

trk`khjkmdr içd tbe fitbrbssb iuek lfxkãçd tkyhdråstfgk mk prbstkãçd? bhb prblbrb tbr

bxpbgtktfvks mb luiãòbs gkmk vbz ekfs birfqubgfmks.

^krbgb pdfs bxghuåmd pbhk hbf ue vfsfdikebitd bstrftd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd

gditrktkmk, hfckmk kd pdstd mb trk`khjd gdigrbtd, sbimd ÷`vfd qub uek «kgtfvfmkmb±,

qub supòb «luiãòbs± gdrrbspdimb k ue gdigbftd ekfs khkrckmd. Mb qukhqubr edmd, æ

figditbstëvbh d kpbhd k uek gktbcdrfk-tfpd pkrk mblfifr d dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd md

trk`khjkmdr, lkhkimd-sb, ibstb sbitfmd, ik gktbcdrfk dòbgtfvk.

Gktbcdrfk idrektfvk du bstktutërfk ‗ Iue tbrgbfrd sbitfmd k gktbcdrfk rblbrb-sb î

pdsfãçd be qub d trk`khjkmdr sb bigditrk b ik qukh tbe mb sbr ghkssflfgkmd du

qukhflfgkmd, mb kgdrmd gde k rbcuhkebitkãçd gdhbgtfvk kphfgëvbh, pbhk

gdrrbspdimïigfk mks suks luiãòbs k uek mkmk «gktbcdrfk± du «ghkssb±, rbhbvkitb

pkrk blbftds mb jfbrkrqufk skhkrfkh b dutrds.

Idtb-sb qub k pdssb mbstk gktbcdrfk idrektfvk sb içd mblfib euftks vbzbs kpbiks

pbhks luiãòbs, sbimd rbhbvkitb k prbpkrkãçd bsgdhkr `ësfgk, k kptfmçd prdlfssfdikh

gbrtflfgkmk (pdr bx., be bxkebs), k bxpbrfïigfk, d iåvbh mb kutdidefk b mb

rbspdisk`fhfmkmb, btg.

Îqufhd qub d trk`khjkmdr æ, lkz b mbvb lkzbr gdrrbspdimb uek gbrtk pdsfãçd qub tbe

pdr lditb ks idreks qub rbcbe k rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd. Gktbcdrfk, ibstk kgbpãçd,

sfciflfgk, pdfs, uek mbsfcikãçd î qukh sb rbpdrtk ue bstktutd pr÷prfd mb kgdrmd gde





d prbsgrftd pdr rblbrïigfk kds qukmrds, mbsgrftfvds b tk`bhks mds fistruebitds mb

rbcuhkebitkãçd gdhbgtfvk. Ibstb sbitfmd sb pdmbrë lkhkr mb ue vbrmkmbfrd mfrbftd î

gktbcdrfk, du mfrbftd î qukhflfgkãçd

Bstkrbeds kssfe be prbsbiãk mb gktbcdrfk idrektfvk du bstktutërfk. Ds FPG]'s b,

sd`rbtumd, ks gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks bstk`bhbgbe ks gktbcdrfks idrektfvks, gde uek

mbsgrfãçd mb luiãòbs, pkrk blbftds mb kmefssçd b mb kgbssd, mb tk`bhk skhkrfkh, mb

gkrrbfrk prdlfssfdikh. K gdivbiãçd gdhbgtfvk mfspòb qub ds prdlfssfdikfs k`rkicfmds

sboke d`rfcktdrfkebitb ghkssflfgkmds, mb jkredifk gde ks luiãòbs qub mbsbepbijbe,

iks gktbcdrfks prdlfssfdikfs gdistkitbs mb ue kibxd k bssk ebsek gdivbiãçd. Ds

beprbckmdrbs, qub tïe d bigkrcd mb prdgbmbr k tkh qukhflfgkãçd, pkrtbe, pdfs, mb

uek rbkhfmkmb ekfs rbstrftk ‗ d pdstd mb trk`khjd du «luiãçd± -, md qub k md dòbgtd

cbiærfgd mk prbstkãçd md gditrktd mb trk`khjd (gktbcdrfk dòbgtfvk du gditrktukh),

rbhkgfdikimd-k gde tfpdhdcfks prdlfssfdikfs k`strkgtks. Kssfe rbhbvk ik prëtfgk d «pdstd

mb trk`khjd± blbgtfvkebitb mbsbivdhvfmd pkrk blbftds mk ktrfùfãçd mb uek gktbcdrfk

idrektfvk biuebrkmk ik tfpdhdcfk prdlfssfdikh gdistkitb mbssb kibxd.

Ds FPG]'s mfstrfùbe ks vërfks «gktbcdrfks± du tfpdhdcfks prdlfssfdikfs pbhds iåvbfs

rbtrfùtfvds, mb kgdrmd gde ds lkgtdrbs susgbptåvbfs mb jfbrkrqufzkr bssks gktbcdrfks

Bssk jfbrkrqufzkãçd grfk uek crbhjk rbtrfùtfvk qub lfxk, iue dutrd kibxd, ks

rbtrfùfãòbs eåifeks rbhktfvks kds vërfds iåvbfs skhkrfkfs. Ks ghëusuhks mds FPG]'s

bstk`bhbgbe rbspbgtfvkebitb ks «gktbcdrfks± b suks su`mfvfsòbs, gdimfãòbs mb

kmefssçd...

Æ lrbqubitb tke`æe qub ds FPG]'s bstk`bhbãke kgbssds d`rfckt÷rfds, idrekhebitb be

rbhkãçd îs su`mfvfsòbs du ghkssbs, bsgkhòbs du crkus.

K rbstkitb gkrrbfrk prdlfssfdikh æ ids FPG]'s mblfifmk be luiãçd mk kitfcufmkmb, mb

prdvks mkmks, mk kprbgfkãçd pktrdikh, btg.

Ds FPG]'s prbvïbe lrbqubitbebitb mbisfmkmbs, fstd æ, prdpdrãòbs eåifeks bitrb k

gktbcdrfk supbrfdr/filbrfdr du kiëhdcks prdpdrãòbs.

Bstks qukhflfgkãòbs du gktbcdrfks idrektfvks, qub mblfibe ue gbrtd trktkebitd pkrk d

trk`khjkmdr, pdmbe sbr dòbgtd mb ue mfrbftd, id sbitfmd qub kd trk`khjkmdr æ mbvfmd

d trktkebitd gdrrbspdimbitb k gktbcdrfk ik qukh bhb pr÷prfd mbvb sbr biqukmrkmd

pbhks luiãòbs mbsbepbijkmks b içd pbhk mbsfcikãçd qub kr`ftrkrfkebitb d

beprbckmdr hjb ktrfùk.





Eks fepdrtk içd gdiluimfr bstb mfrbftd î gktbcdrfk gde k mbhfeftkãçd mks luiãòbs

qub d trk`khjkmdr bstë d`rfckmd k bxbrgbr. Ks luiãòbs k bxbrgbr mbpbimbe md

dòbgtd lfxkmd id gditrktd b içd mk gktbcdrfk ktrfùåmk (fstd æ, mk gktbcdrfk

idrektfvk). Æ pdr içd bstk`bhbgbrbe bstk mfstfiãçd qub gbrtds trk`khjkmdrbs

prbtbimbe, sbe luimkebitd, bxbgutkr kpbiks ks tkrblks gdeprbbimfmks ids

mbsgrftfvds b feprbgfsds gditbÿmds luigfdikfs qub ks gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks utfhfzke

pkrk fmbitflfgkr ks gktbcdrfks.

Gktbcdrfk beprbskrfkh ‗ Be qukrtd huckr, k gktbcdrfk pdmb hfckr-sb îs mbsfcikãòbs mks

qukhflfgkãòbs beprbskrfkfs mk pdsfãçd md trk`khjkmdr rbhktfvkebitb kd pr÷prfd

drckidcrkek mk beprbsk, qukhflfgkãòbs bssks guok bstk`fhfmkmb s÷ pdmb tbr bsgkssk

tutbhk ouråmfgk, sd` pbik mb tdekr fepdssåvbh qukhqubr rbdrckifzkãçd beprbskrfkh.

]rktkr-sb-ë mk gktbcdrfk beprbskrfkh qub pdmb du içd gdfigfmfr gde k mbsfcikãçd md

pdstd mb trk`khjd mk beprbsk, eks qub mb qukhqubr edmd tbe gkrëgtbr kut÷ided

rbhktfvkebitb kds FPG]'s.

Be gbrtds FPG]'s jë uek prdluimk gdrrbspdimïigfk mk gktbcdrfk idrektfvk î rbkhfmkmb

drckifzkgfdikh? rblbrfed-ids kds kgdrmds mb beprbsk (KB's) qub, gbhb`rkmds bitrb ds

vërfds sfimfgktds b uek ÿifgk beprbsk, prbvïbe gde gdephbtumb tdmks ks sftukãòbs

prdlfssfdikfs prbsbitbs, mb edmd k biqukmrë-hks ik qukhflfgkãçd idrektfvk.

Gktbcdrfk «rbkh± ‗ lkhk-sb tke`æe pdr vbzbs ik gktbcdrfk mftk «rbkh±, gde fstd sb

prbtbimbimd sfciflfgkr k kgtfvfmkmb rbkh b blbgtfvkebitb rbkhfzkmk k gkmk edebitd

‗ «ks luiãòbs be gdigrbtd±. Æ kqufhd qub d trk`khjkmdr blbgtfvkebitb lkz. Mb bitrb ks

pdssåvbfs luiãòbs, sbrvfãds, dpbrkãòbs du tkrblks qub lkzbe pkrtb mk kgtfvfmkmb

prdebtfmk gditrktukhebitb, d beprbckmdr vkf gdhdgkimd d trk`khjkmdr iue pdstd

mb trk`khjd gde bssks gdepbtïigfks b mbtbrefikimd k rbkhfzkãçd be gdigrbtd mks

tkrblks qub gdisfmbrk ibgbssërfks. Æ bvfmbitb k fepdrtàigfk md gdigbftd be tbreds

mb cbstçd. Id phkid ouråmfgd, k sftukãçd rbkh tbe d`vfkebitb rbhbvàigfk pkrkmbtbgtkr uek brrkmk qukhflfgkãçd md trk`khjkmdr, du k blbgtfvkãçd muek

prdedãçd, btg. ^dr dutrd hkmd, ik prëtfgk, pkrk k fitbcrkãçd ik gktbcdrfk idrektfvk,

ktbimb-sb euftks vbzbs ekfs î gktbcdrfk ‘rbkh― qub î gktbcdrfk gditrktukh.

Gktbcdrfk drckifzkgfdikh du jfbrërqufgk ‗ k gktbcdrfk tbe tke`æe uek fibcëvbh

gdidtkãçd jfbrërqufgk, hfckmk içd s÷ k uek bsgkhk rbtrfùtfvk, eks tke`æe k uek

sftukãçd mb mfstrfùfãçd mb pdmbr ik drckifzkãçd b, kfimk, k ue gbrtd tfpd mb

vkhdrfzkãçd ibe sbeprb lëgfh mb mblfifr. Gded vfeds jë pdugd, ks GG]'s bstk`bhbgbeîs vbzbs bssk jfbrkrqufzkãçd b, mbitrd mb gktbcdrfks mblfifmks, prdgurke kssbcurkr





qub bstboke sbeprb idebkmds trk`khjkmdrbs be gbrtk pbrgbitkcbe eåifek

(mbisfmkmbs), bstk`bhbgbimd gdimfãòbs mb prdedãçd mb uek gktbcdrfk k dutrk. Ds

prd`hbeks mks gkrrbfrks gdhdgke-sb k bstb prdp÷sftd.

^dmb-sb kssfe lkhkr mb gktbcdrfk hfckmk kd sfstbek drckifzktfvd gde `ksb iks fmbfks

qub mbgdrrbe mk hbf qukitd k uek jfbrkrqufzkãçd mb luiãòbs, be tbreds mb pbreftfr

mfzbr qub be gbrtks gdimfãòbs d trk`khjkmdr æ prdedvfmd du mbsprdedvfmd ‗ gksd

be prfigåpfd fhågftd, gded mbgdrrb mk prdf`fãçd mb `kfxkr k gktbcdrfk md trk`khjkmdr

bstk`bhbgfmk id krt. ;00.¾, b), md G].

7. Gditbÿmd md G]

F - ^dsfãçd md beprbckmdr. Ds pdmbrbs md beprbckmdr

Ds pdmbrbs md beprbckmdr trkmuzfimd k suk pdsfãçd biqukitd tftuhkr mk beprbsk? Æ

d beprbckmdr qub mblfib k bstruturk mk beprbsk, d sbu drckidcrkek b qukmrd mb

pbssdkh. Bstk gdepbtïigfk cbiærfgk md beprbckmdr tbe lditb id pr÷prfd rbcfeb

hbckh md gditrktd fimfvfmukh mb trk`khjd b mbrfvk mk fimfspbisk`fhfmkmb mk cbstçd

gdiouitk md pbssdkh ik beprbsk. Euftd be`drk ds pdmbrbs qub rblbrfeds mb rblhfgtke

ik pdsfãçd fimfvfmukh mb gkmk gditrktd mb trk`khjd gdrrbspdimbe euftks vbzbs k

gditrktds be lkgb md pbssdkh. K drckifzkãçd beprbskrfkh rbqubr k lfxkãçd mb

pkmròbs b içd æ fitbfrkebitb gdepktåvbh gde k gbhb`rkãçd mb kgdrmds fimfvfmukfs

ktæ pdrqub `kstkvk qub khcuæe içd kgbftkssb pkrk sb tdrikr fepdssåvbh qukhqubr

eumkiãk. Ds pdmbrbs md beprbckmdr sçd hfeftkmds pbhk fitbrvbiãçd mks BPG]s . Be

lkgb mb lkguhmkmbs mb drckifzkãçd içd sb pdmb k`strkfr mk fitbrvbiãçd mb bstruturks

rbprbsbitktfvks ibgbsskrfkebitb sbisåvbfs kds fitbrbssbs mds trk`khjkmdrbs klbgtkmds.

D drmbikebitd ktrfùf î bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk trïs pdmbrbs luimkebitkfs ik

ektærfk mb cbstçd md gditrktd mb trk`khjd? pdmbr mfrbgtfvd, mfsgfphfikr b

rbcuhkebitkr.

^dmbr mfrbgtfvd? Gdrrbspdimb î pdsfãçd su`drmfikmk md trk`khjkmdr bspbgflfgkmk

pbhd beprbckmdr. Id pdmbr mfrbgtfvd æ mb mfstficufr?

ue pdmbr mbtbrefiktfvd mb luiãçd? lkguhmkmb md beprbckmdr mb ktrfùfr

kd trk`khjkmdr k luiãçd du d pdstd b trk`khjd ik beprbsk (krt. ;;:¿),

mbsmb qub sb fisfrk iks luiãdbs gdivbigfdikmks qub gdistftube d dòbgtd

md gditrktd.





ue pdmbr gdildrektfvd mk prbstkãçd? lkguhmkmb pktrdikh mb mkr

gditfiukmkebitb drmbis, fistruãòbs b fimfgkãòbs pkrk gdigrbtfzkr k

prbstkãçd b kmbquë-hk kds lfis beprbskrfkfs, fstd æ, bstk`bhbgbr ds tbreds

be qub d trk`khjd mbvb sbr prbstkmd.

D trk`khjkmdr tbe, be cbrkh, uek d`rfckãçd bebrcbitb mk prbvfsf`fhfmkmb mb

mbsbivdhvfebitd gditrktukh mb edmd k mkr rbspdstk î bvdhuãçd tbgidh÷cfgk. [ukitd

î mblfifãçd mk kgtfvfmkmb, dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd mb trk`khjd bstk mbvb sbr

rbgdilfcurkmk hbckhebitb ids tbreds md krt. ;;:¿0 mb edmd k k`rkicbr dutrks

luiãòbs. ]rktkr-sb-ë kssfe mb ue bitbimfebitd bhëstfgd md dòbgtd md gditrktd qub

pdssf`fhftk kd beprbckmdr khcuek ekrcbe mb ekid`rk içd bxtrkdrmfiërfk.

[ukitd kd bxbrgågfd md pdmbr mfrbgtfvd, æ ÷`vfd qub jkvbrbeds mb gdisfmbrkr k

bxfstïigfk mb hfeftbs qub tïe k vbr gde k prdtbgãçd mk mfcifmkmb md trk`khjkmdr. D

beprbckmdr içd pdmb mbsfcikr uifhktbrkhebitb pkrk pdstds mb trk`khjd ibe bxfcfr k

prëtfgk mb luiãòbs qub içd sb gdeprbbimke ik kgtfvfmkmb gditrktkmk. D pdmbr

mfrbgtfvd bstë mbhfeftkmd pbhd dòbgtd mk prbstkãçd gditrktukhebitb lfxkmd, du sbok,

pbhk kgtfvfmkmb mblfifmk.

Ed`fhfmkmb Luigfdikh? Ous \krfkimf? Be gfrguistàigfks bxgbpgfdikfs, k bitfmkmb

beprbckmdrk pdmbrë bigkrrbckr tbepdrkrfkebitb d trk`khjkmdr mb sbrvfãds içd

gdeprbbimfmds id dòbgtd md gditrktd (krt. ;0>¿), æ d qub sb gjkek mb ed`fhfmkmb

luigfdikh. D ous vkrfkimf bxphfgk-sb pdrqub pdmbe surcfr fibspbrkmkebitb

ibgbssfmkmbs mb su`stftufãçd mb trk`khjkmdrbs b dutrks bebrcïigfks. Æ prbgfsd qub sb

vbrflfqube gueuhktfvkebitb?

;. Luimkebitd mb ik khtbrkãçd bstkr ue fitbrbssb mb pkrtfguhkr rbhbvàigfk pkrk

k beprbsk1

0. K vkrfkãçd sbr tbepdrërfk1

7. Wbr gdisbrvkmk k rbtrfùfãçd sb d trktkebitd bgdi÷efgd mks idvks luiãòbs

ldr fcukh du filbrfdr1 sb ldr supbrfdr kd trk`khjkmdr gdrrbspdimb ks gdimfãòbs

fibrbitbs ‗ ;0>/=

=. Wbr prbsbrvkmk k fmbitfmkmb su`stkigfkh mb pdsfãçd md trk`khjkmdr içd sd

bigkrkmk mb ue pditd mb vfstk bgdi÷efgd eks mb jfbrkrqufk b mfcifmkmb mb

luiãòbs b mk pbidsfmkmb mk tkrblk

2. K drmbe sbok oustflfgkmk, gde fimfgkãçd prbvfsåvbh md tbepd mk khtbrkãçd, qub

içd mbvb bxgbmbr 0kids.





Ibstk ldreuhkãçd ghëssfgk qukitd kd pdmbr mfrbgtfvd lfgke pdr vbzbs ik sde`rk

dutrds pdmbrbs md beprbckmdr qub tïe k vbr ekfs gde k kutdrfmkmb md qub gde k

mfrbgãçd du id àe`ftd md G]P gde d àe`ftd mb drckifzkãçd (krt. ;;¿). [ubrbeds

khumfr sd`rbtumd kds pdmbrbs mb fispbgãçd (tdekmk mb gdijbgfebitd b gditrdhd

qukitd kds ktds rbhktfvds kd mbsbepbijd md sbrvfãd b mk vfmk mk beprbsk), mb

supbrfitbimïigfk (gdrrbãçd, rbdrfbitkãkd rbhktfvkebitb î prbstkãkd md sbrvfãd) b mb

gddrmbikãçd (drckifzkr d trk`khjd b jkredifzkãçd b mk gdiouckãçd mks

kgtfvfmkmbs mds vërfds trk`khjkmdrbs). ]rktk-sb mb pdmbrbs pktrdikfs mb ikturbzk

jfbrërqufgk b qub pdmbe sbr mfstrf`uåmds pbhk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk k trk`khjkmdrbs

qub k rbprbsbitbe id bxbrgågfd mbssbs pdmbrbs.

^dmbr mfsgfphfikr? ]rktk-sb md pdmbr mb prbmfspdr b kphfgkr ebmfmks gdkgtfvks

kmbqukmks kds trk`khjkmdrbs guok gdimutk prboumfqub du pdijk be pbrfcd k

beprbsk. D pdmbr mfsgfphfikr kgtuk gded ckrkitfk id gueprfebitd mks prbstkãòbs

md trk`khjd. Oustflfgk-sb sd`rbtumd pbhk ibgbssfmkmb mb ekitbr k mfsgfphfik md crupd

mk gdeuifmkmb beprbskrfkh.

Wkiãòbs Mfsgfphfikrbs (70:)? Ks skiãòbs mfsgfphfikrbs bstçd bstk`bhbgfmks

bxbephflfgktfvkebitb pdmbimd sbr lfxkmks dutrks pdr FPG] mbsmb qub içd

prboumfqube ds mfrbftds b ckrkitfks cbrkfs mds trk`khjkmdrbs b mbvbe sbr

prdpdrgfdikmks î crkvfmkmb mk filrkgãçd b guhpk`fhfmkmb md filrkgtdr, içd pdmbimd

sbr kphfgkmk ekfs md qub uek pbhk ebsek filrkgãkd.

Gkrkgtbr edrkh (rbprbbisçd sfephbs du rbcfstkmk)

^ktrfedifkh (skiãçd pbguifërfk)

Bxpuhsfvks (gkrkgtbr tbepdrërfd (suspbisçd) b mblfiftfvd (mbspbmfebitd)

^brmk mb mfks mb lbrfks (Fitrdmuzfmk pbhd G] 0>>7‖)

^rdgbmfebitd Mfsgfphfikr? Ks skiãòbs mfsgfphfikrbs içd pdmbe sbr kphfgkmks sbe

prbgbmïigfk mb ue prdgbmfebitd pr÷prfd be qub jkok ckrkitfks mb kumfïigfk prævfk

(krt. 706¿/<). D prdgbmfebitd mfsgfphfikr tbe be vfstk k kvbrfcukãçd mds lkgtds qub

pdmbe gdistftufr k filrkgãçd mfsgfphfikr. Ks suks gfrguistkigfks, d sbu kutdr(bs), d crku

mb guhpk b k bvitukh kphfgkãçd mb uek skiãçd b mbvb fifgfkr-sb ids <>mfks

su`sbqubitbs kqubhk be qub k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk tbvb gdijbgfebitd mk

filrkgãkd (706/0). D gdijbgfebitd rblbrb-sb k pbssdk du ÷rcçd gde gdepbtïigfk

mfsgfphfikr. Æ kitbgbmfmd mb ue prdgbmfebitd mb kvbrfcukãòbs b s÷ k pkrtfr mks

gdighusòbs mbstb sb gdistftuf d gdijbgfebitd mk filrkgãçd. Wb d prdgbmfebitd içd

ldr fifgfkmd mbitrd md prkzd gkmugk. D prdgbmfebitd mfsgfphfikr tbe ghkssfgkebitb

trïs lksbs?





;. Fistruãçd mbstfikmk k rbuifr ds bhbebitds mb prdvk. Lfimk k fistruãçd sb d

prdgbmfebitd jduvbr qub sbcufr, sbrë idrekhebitb kprbsbitkmk kd trk`khjkmdr

krcufmd uek idtk mb guhpk (fimfgkãçd mds lkgtds feputkmds b mks suks

gfrguistkigfks mdguebitd bsgrftd be qub sb lkz k mbsgrfãçd mds lkgtds qub d

trk`khjkmdr bstk k sbr kguskmd mb tbr prktfgkmd b mks gfrguistkigfks qub rdmbkrke

bssk prktfgk).

0. Mblbsk/kumfbigfk be qub d trk`khjkmdr krcufmd rbspdimb î idtk mb guhpk b

pdmb rbqubrbr d bxkeb md prdgbmfebitd, k ouiãkd mb mdguebitds, k fiqufrfãkd mb

tbstbeuijks b dutrks mfhfcbigfks, mbstfikmks k kpurkr k suk vbrsçd mds lkgtds k

kumfbigfk, bivdhvbimd k dpdrtuifmkmb mb mblbsk md trk`khjkmdr, æ gdimfãçd mb

vkhfmkmb md prdgbssd mfsgfphfikr (706/<), sd` pbik mb sbr iuhk k skiãçd mfsgfphfikr.

7. Mbgfsçd be qub sb kprbgfk b rbsdhvb d gksd. Rek vbz mbgfmfmk k skiãçd k

kphfgkr bstk tbrë mb sbr bxbgutkmk du kphfgkmk ids trïs ebsbs su`sbqubitbs î mbgfsçd

(krt. 77>¿/0).

Ks filrkgãdbs mfsgfphfikrbs prbsgrbvbe kd lfe mb ue kid k gditkr md edebitd be

qub tfvbr huckr, du sbok k pkrtfr md mbgursd mbstb prkzd k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk, sb

içd fifgfdu d prdgbmfebitd, oë içd pdmbrë puifr d trk`khjkmdr rbspdisëvbh. D prkzdgdebãk k gditkr mbstb k mktk md rbsuhtkmd mkidsd b içd mbsmb d edebitd be qub

d beprbckmdr tbe gdijbgfebitd (gded kgditbgb gde d prkzd pkrk fifgfkr d

prdgbmfebitd mfsgfphfikr).

Wkiãòbs Kùsfvks? D drmbikebitd tbe pkrtfguhkr gufmkmd gde ks skiãòbs kùsfvks

gdisfmbrkimd-sb gbrtds edtfvds suòkgbitbs î kphfgkãçd mb skiãòbs gded

pkrtfguhkrebitb rbprdvëvbfs. Be rbcrk prbsueb-sb d kùsd ik kphfgkãçd mb skiãòbs

mbitrd md prkzd mb sbfs ebsbs kpds ds lkgtds rbkgtfvds ebigfdikmds, prkzd qub pkssk

k ;kid id gksd mb rbghkekãòbs du bxbrgågfds mb mfrbftds rbhktfvds î fcukhmkmb b içd

mfsgrfefikãçd. D pdmbr mfsgfphfikr pdmb sbr gditrdhkmd qubr pbhk bstruturk jfbrërqufgk

qubr pbhds ebgkifseds bvbitukhebitb prbvfstds be FPG] (krt. 706¿/3). Wbrë kfimk

pdssåvbh d gditrdhd oumfgfkh, be kãçd fitbitkmk pbhd trk`khjkmdr qub gdisfmbrb

fioustkebitb du fhfgftkebitb puifmd.

^dmbr rbcuhkebitkr? Gdistftuf k ekiflbstkãçd md pdmbr mfrbgtfvd b mfsgfphfikr mk

bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk, qub bhk`drk rbcuhkebitds fitbrids mdimb gdistke ksidreks cbrkfs mb drckifzkãçd b mfsgfphfik md trk`khjd ik beprbsk (krt. 66¿/;).





Md rbcuhkebitd fitbrid pdmbe tke`æe gdistkr dutrks mfspdsfãòbs qub luigfdike

gded ghëusuhks gditrktukfs (krt. ;>=¿) be qub sb mblfibe ks gdimfãòbs mb trk`khjd du

sb pdrebidrfzke ds vërfds mfrbftds gdilbrfmds pbhk hbf îs pkrtbs. Ik ebmfmk be qub d

rbcuhkebitd fitbrid sb rblbrb k qubstòbs rbspbftkitbs kd gditbÿmd md G] ibgbssftk md

kgdrmd mks pkrtbs. K hbf prbsueb k bxfstbigk mbssb kgdrmd qukimd d trk`khjkmdr içd

sb prdiuigfkr gditrk d rbcuhkebitd, pdr bsgrftd, mbitrd mb 0;mfks k gditkr md fifgfd

mk bxbguãçd md G] du mk mfvuhckãçd md rbcuhkebitd, sb bstb ldr pdstbrfdr (krt. ;>=/0)

D rbcuhkebitd fitbrid mbsbepbijk muks luiãòbs? k ekiflbstkãçd mk vditkmb

gditrktukh b ekiflbstkãçd mds pdmbrbs drckifzkgfdikfs mfrbgtfvds b mfsgfphfikrbs md

beprbckmdr.

^krtb Gditrktukh md Pfs‖? Id qub tdgk î pkrtb gditrktukh mds rbcuhkebitds bstbs

gdistftube gditrktds mb kmbsçd du ebhjdr, ghëusuhks gditrktukfs cbrkfs. Jë uek

tfpflfgkãçd mds gditrktds mb trk`khjd? be vbz mb sb mfsgutfrbe fimfvfmukhebitb b

pditd pdr pditd ks gdimfãòbs md gditrktd, mblfibe id rbcuhkebitd ue gbrtd

bsqubek gditrktukh qub prdpfgfb k rkgfdikhfzkãçd, k fcukhmkmb b d bqufhå`rfd mb

sftukãòbs mds sbus beprbckmds, qub hjbs pdssf`fhftb d bxkgtd gdijbgfebitd md qub

pdmbe gditkr b kfimk qub pbreftb uek gbrtk kitbvfsçd b prdcrkekãçd id qub tdgk

kds bigkrcds gde d trk`khjkmdr.

^krtb içd gditrktukh mds Pfs? Biqukitd ekiflbstkãçd mds pdmbrbs md beprbsërfd, d

rbcuhkebitd gditæe idreks pdr guok bekikãçd æ kpbiks bstb d rbspdisëvbh,

idreks qub pkrk ds trk`khjkmdrbs tïe ue gkrëgtbr jbtbr÷ided pdfs bhbs içd

gdepkrtfgfpke ik suk bhk`drkãçd. K blfgëgfk mbstks idreks içd gkrbgb mb edmd

ibijue mk kgbftkãçd mds trk`khjkmdrbs, pdmbimd sbr hfvrbebitb rbvdcëvbfs.

Pbcuhkebitds Ibcdgfkmds? ]ïe-sb vuhckrfzkmd ds rbcuhkebitds mb beprbsk

ibcdgfkmds, beftfmds pdr ldrãk mb gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks, gde kusguhtkãçd du

kgdrmd mks fistkigfks sfimfgkfs (rbcuhkebitds mfsgfphfikrbs, mb gkrrbfrks, btg)

Wb æ lëgfh k mfstfiãçd bitrb bstks muks luiãòbs md rbcuhkebitd ibe sbeprb sb tdrik

sfephbs kvbrfcukr sb uek ghëusuhk æ prdprfkebitb gditrktukh du mb gkrëgtbr

rbcuhkebitkr. ^dr fssd, ds rbcuhkebitds fitbrids kprbsbitke uek ldrek uiftërfk be

qub içd æ lëgfh mfstficufr ds mdfs kspbgtds? bstks muks luiãòbs sçd bxbrgfmks pdr

mbghkrkãçd mb vditkmb beprbskrfkh ldrekhebitb gdigrbtfzkmk iue ÿifgd

fistruebitd b suobftd, pdr fcukh, kd bsqubek mb gditrdhd b mb pu`hfgfmkmb prbvfstd ik

hbf.





FF - ^dsfãçd md trk`khjkmdr

Mfrbftds, mbvbrbs b ckrkitfks

Id phkid md rbhkgfdikebitd gditrktukh trk`khjkmdrbs/beprbckmdrbs b mds mfrbftds bmbvbrbs rbspbgtfvds sd`rbsskf k bxfstïigfk mb ue våiguhd mb gdhk`drkãçd ik

bxbguãçd md gditrktd. Id gueprfebitd b bxbguãçd md gditrktd, d beprbckmdr b d

trk`khjkmdr mbvbrçd prdgbmbr mb `dk læ (krt. ;0<¿/;). D ekfs skhfbitb mfrbftd mds

trk`khjkmdrbs æ d mk rbtrf`ufãçd du skhërfd (krt. ;03¿/;, `)). Ks gjkekmks ckrkitfks md

trk`khjkmdr bstçd rblbrfmks id krt. ;06¿, d prbgbftd kpbhfmk mb ckrkitfks md

trk`khjkmdr gbrtds mbvbrbs mb gkrëgtbr ibcktfvd fepdstds î bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk

qub fephfgke hfeftkãòbs kd bxbrgågfd mks suks lkguhmkmbs. Ks ckrkitfks md

trk`khjkmdr bxprfebe-sb be prdf`fãòbs î bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk (krt. ;06¿). Kfimk

qukitd îs pdsfãòbs kgtfvks mds trk`khjkmdrbs, sçd fepdrtkitbs ds mfrbftds bebrcbitbs

md mbsbivdhvfebitd mk rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd sd`rbtumd ds hfckmds î bxbguãçd md

trk`khjd b rbpdusds `be gded ds rbhktfvds ë suspbisçd b gbsskãçd md gditrktd.

Ks sftukãòbs mb su`drmfikãçd pr÷prfks md gditrktd mb trk`khjd bxpòbe ds

trk`khjkmdrbs k rfsgds mb hbsçd mbssbs mfrbftds.

Mbvbrbs mds ]rk`khjkmdrbs? krt. ;0:¿

Mfrbftds pbssdkfs luimkebitkfs mds trk`khjkmdrbs bspbgfkhebitb rbhbvkitbs

Æ gdistkitb d kpbhd kds vkhdrbs mb gdhk`drkãçd, `dk læ, gdilfkiãk, hbkhmkmb b

kssfstïigfk ik rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd b k ktbiãçd mkmk kds mbvbrbs ætfgd-ouråmfgds ik

rbhkãçd mb trk`khjd. Fepdrtk kfimk kgbitukr qub ds kspbgtds hfckmds î tutbhk mk

pbrsdikhfmkmb md trk`khjkmdr bstçd id gksd pdrtucuïs mblfifmds ik hbcfshkãçd md

pr÷prfd gditrktd mb trk`khjd, gded vbrbeds. K ektærfk tbe tke`æe sfmd trktkmk id

phkid mds mfrbftds luimkebitkfs.

D prd`hbek bstë ik gdigfhfkãçd bitrb? f) tutbhk md trk`khjkmdr1 ff) luigfdikhfmkmb md

pr÷prfd sfstbek beprbskrfkh.

]be-sb pdstd be rbhbvd k fmbfk mb qub d drmbikebitd mbvb kssbcurkr kd trk`khjkmdr

ds sbus mfrbftds gded pbssdk, gded gfmkmçd b gded trk`khjkmdr, bstbs jkvbrçd mb

sbr rbgdijbgfmds iue phkid mb gdigdrmàigfk prëtfgk.

Ds mfrbftds pbssdkfs bstçd rblbrfmds id g÷mfcd md trk`khjd id krt. ;<¿ b be `rbvb

rbsbijk fimfgkeds?

Fitbcrfmkmb låsfgk b edrkh, mfrbftd î hfvrb bxprbssçd b dpfifçd, mfrbftd î rbsbrvk mk




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik =>

fitfefmkmb mk vfmk prfvkmk, mfrbftd î prdtbgãçd mk mfcifmkmb, mfrbftds rbhktfvds î

prdtbgãçd mk vfmk lkefhfkr, î hfvrb bxprbssçd ik vfmk pdhåtfgk b sdgfkh, mfrbftds mb

grfkãçd b fcukhmkmb.

^krk khæe mds oë rblbrbigfkmds mfrbftds î hfvrb bsgdhjk mk prdlfssçd, d G÷mfcd më

bspbgfkh rbhbvàigfk î ldrekãçd prdlfssfdikh (krts. ;7>¿ k ;7=¿).

Mfrbftd î bsgdhjk mk prdlfssçd b kd mbsbivdhvfebitd prdlfssfdikh. K dgupkãçd blbgtfvk?

Bstë jdob `kstkitb mfvuhckmk k fmbfk mb qub sd`rb d beprbckmdr fepbimb ue mbvbr

mb dgupkãçd blbgtfvk md trk`khjkmdr kd qukh gdrrbspdimbrfk d mfrbftd mbstb bxfcfr k

fitbcrkãçd ik drckifzkãçd prdmutfvk b k prbstkãçd md trk`khjkmd blbgtfvd be tkh

drckifzkãçd k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk pdmb hfgftkebitb prbsgfimfr mk kgtfvfmkmb

mb gbrtd du gbrtds trk`khjkmdrbs, gditfiukimd k pkckr k rbtrfùfãçd4 Bxfstb k

pdssf`fhfmkmb mb k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk prbsgfimfr mk ktfvfmkmb mb gbrtd du gbrtds

trk`khjkmdrbs, gditfiukimd k pkckr k rbtrfùfãçd be prbouåzd mk ibgbssfmkmb mb ‗

be rbsuhtkmd mb mbvbrbs cbrkfs mb `dk læ ‗ luimkebitkr k mbgfsçd be grftærfds

dòbgtfvds b gdbrbitbs gde k rkzçd mb sbr md pdmbr mb mfrbgãçd pktrdikh.

Kssfe, s÷ sb pdmbrë lkhkr mb fhågftd pktrdikh k bstb prdp÷sftd qukimd k gdimutk md

beprbsërfd qub içd pbreftk k bxbguãçd gdrrbspdimk k uek qub`rk md mbvbr mb

`dk læ du gdistftuk kùsd mb mfrbftd.

D grbmftd pktrdikh ks prbstkãòbs md trk`khjd mds vërfds trk`khjkmdrbs kd sbrvfãd sbrvb

ds lfis drckifzkgfdikfs mk beprbsk, pbhd qukh d beprbckmdr æ d prfigfpkh rbspdisëvbh,

b bssb grbmftd içd bstk ourfmfgkebitb lfikhfzkmd kd dòbgtfvd mb prdpdrgfdikr

dgupkãçd kd sbu mbvbmdr.

^dmb jkvbr sftukãòbs rkrks be qub d mbskprdvbftkebitd mk prbstkãçd bivdhvb uek

ktftumb mdhdsk md beprbckmdr k qukh sbrk fhågftk uek gdfsk æ vkhbr-sb mk

gdistkigfk md vfiguhd pkrk prbouåzd md trk`khjkmdr, lkzbimd-d pbrmbr bxpbrfbigfk

prdlfssfdikh, hbskimd-d ik suk gkpkgfmkmb grfktfvk b kssuefimd kssfe gdimutks

fispfrkmks pbhk ek lb1 dutk æ k bxfstïigfk mb ue efrflfgd mbvbr mb dgupkr b mb lkzbr

trk`khjkr ks vbzbs qube içd tbe pkrk fssd dpdrtuifmkmb id qukmrd mk cbstçd

beprbskrfkh.

Hbvkimd bssb prbtbisd mbvbr îs ÿhtfeks gdisbquïigfks sustbitkr-sb-fk ktæ qub k

bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk içd pdmb sbe gdisbitfebitd md trk`khjkmdr mfspbisë-hd md

sbrvfãd pdr khcueks jdrks du mfks, du ekitï-hd fikgtfvd biqukitd bspbrk k

dpdrtuifmkmb mb hkiãkr ue prdmutd.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik =;

Bitrb i÷s jë kfimk ue rbhktfvd `hdqubfd mds mbspbmfebitds b æ lktkh k mbsdgupkãçd

blbgtfvk bebrcbitb md sfstbek hbcfshktfvd. Bstb bitbimfebitd içd æ prboumfgkmd pbhk

gfrguistàigfk mb k hbf gdiskcrkr uek prdf`fãçd mb d beprbckmdr d`stkr

fioustflfgkmkebitb î prbstkãçd blbgtfvk mb trk`khjd (krt. ;06¿, `)) içd gdistftuf d

mfrbftd k dgupkãçd blbgtfvk, bivdhvbimd kpbiks k d`rfckãçd mb d beprbckmdr içd

d`stkr î prbstkãkd b qukimd kgditbgbr d ÷ius mb kprbsbitkr uek oustflfgkãçd

sulfgfbitb pkrk d lkgtd mb tbr d`stkmd î prbstkãçd blbgtfvk.

^rdtbgãçd mk gktbcdrfk md trk`khjkmdr

Frrbvbrsf`fhfmkmb mk Gktbcdrfk? Gdistftuf ckrkitfk md trk`khjkmdr k prbsbrvkãçd mk suk

gktbcdrfk (kqubhk pkrk k qukh ldf gditrktkmd du k qub ldf prdedvfmd) qub içd pdmb

sbr `kfxkmk pbhk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk (krt. ;06¿, b)). K hbf prbvï pdr kgdrmd k `kfxk

mk gktbcdrfk md trk`khjkmdr mbsmb qub bhk sbok fepdstk pdr ibgbssfmkmb mk

beprbsk du pdr bstrftk ibgbssfmkmb md trk`khjkmdr.

^rbgfskebitb ds FPG]s b ks idreks mk beprbsk bivdhvbe uek gktbcdrfzkãçd md

trk`khjd ktrkvæs mk grfkãçd mks gjkekmks gktbcdrfks idrektfvks. Fstd ebsed tbe

sfmd rbpbtfmkebitb klfrekmd pbhds trfùikfs qub mbsmb jë euftd gdisfmbrke qub k

gktbcdrfk prdlfssfdikh mb ue trk`khjkmdr æ k qub gdrrbspdimb ë ikturbzk b bspægfb

mks tkrblks pdr bhb blbgtfvkebitb rbkhfzkmks id bxbrgågfd mk suk kgtfvfmkmb b içd k

qub k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk kr`ftrkrfkebitb hjb ktrfùk. Lkhk-sb pdfs mk vfdhkãçd md

mfrbftd î gktbcdrfk qukimd k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk ktrfùf kd trk`khjkmdr d

trktkebitd mb gktbcdrfk filbrfdr.

K kgtfvfmkmb ghkssflfgktfvk qub sb bxprfeb pbhk ktrfùfãçd mb uek gktbcdrfk

prdlfssfdikh pbrtbigb be prfebfrk hfijk kd beprbckmdr b içd sb trktk mb kgtfvfmkmb

mfsgrfgfdiërfk. Içd sbrë mb ekfs fisfstfr be qub ks khtbrkãòbs mb qukhflfgkãçd du

gktbcdrfzkãçd mds pdstds mb trk`khjd trkrçd ks ekfs mks vbzbs ue blbftd mb mdefi÷,

fstd æ, uek rupturk md bqufhå`rfd gdisbcufmd ktrkvæs mk kitbrfdr jfbrkrqufzkãçd, tbimd

mb bivdhvbr k gdrrbgtk kvkhfkãçd mds pdstds mb trk`khjd be prbsbiãk.

Edmbrikebitb, be lkgb mks edmflfgkãòbs gdistkitbs mks tbgidhdcfks b tke`æe md

sfstbek mb drckifzkãçd md trk`khjd bstk`bhbgbu-sb, gded vfeds, d guhtd mk

pdhfvkhïigfk? pkssdu-sb mb drckifzkãçd gdephbxks b mb pdstds mb trk`khjd sfephbs

pkrk drckifzkãòbs sfephbs eks gde pdstds mb trk`khjd gdephbxds . Kssfe, pdmb

kssfstfr-sb kd mbskpkrbgfebitd mb euftks gktbcdrfks prdlfssfdikfs ids FPGts b ks

gktbcdrfks be qub sb gdigbitrke pksske k sbr mbsgrftks id qub gdrrbspdimb kd

bssbigfkh du prbmdefikitb mks luiãòbs.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik =0

Jë dutrds prd`hbeks k trktkr bsqubektfgkebitb?

Bxbrgågfd mb luiãòbs supbrfdrbs du filbrfdrbs. D bxbrgågfd tbepdrërfd du k tftuhd

prbgkrfd mb luiãòbs supbrfdrb sdu bqufvkhbitbs içd fephfgk d mfrbftd î

gktbcdrfk gdrrbspdimbitb (;0>/2), gditumd d trk`khjkmdr gdisbrvk k suk

gktbcdrfk qukimd sboke, mbitrd md d`obgtd md gditrktd, eumkmks ks luiãòbs

qub mbsbepbijk k tftuhd içd trkisft÷rfd, kfimk qub k bstks pkssb k

gdrrbspdimbr uek gktbcdrfk ekfs `kfxk bxgbpgfdikhebitb

^rd`hbeks mb su`suiãçd, sftukãòbs be qub trk`khjkmdr, mbsbepbijkimd

luiãòbs mb uek gktbcdrfk ekfs `kfxk mbsbepbijk tke`æe ks luiãòbs

bspbgålfgks pr÷prfks mfstfitfvks mk gktbcdrfk supbrfdr. Jkvbrë kquf sbe mÿvfmk

prd`hbeks mb biqukmrkebitd. Æ ghkrd qub d prd`hbek sb sfephflfgk mfzbimd

qub bxbgutkimd d trk`khjkmdr tkrblks mks muks gktbcdrfks prdlfssfdikfs mbvb

sbr ghkssflfgkmd ik qub ekfs d lkvdrbãk gditumd içd tbe sfmd bstk k

pbrspbgtfvk ekfdrftërfk ik ourfsprumïigfk, pbhk qukh jë qub mbedistrkr qub ds

trk`khjkmdrbs bxbgutke d «iÿghbd bssbigfkh± mbssks luiãòbs1

Gktbcdrfzkãçd beprbskrfkh? k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk pdmb rbdrckifzkr k

beprbsk eumkimd ks mbsfcikãòbs mds tftuhkrbs eks jë qub ktbimbr kds

prdgbssds mb lusçd mks beprbsks qub bivdhvbe ikturkhebitb rbghkssflfgkãòbs.D qub içd sb pdmb, ik beprbsk, æ rbtr÷crkmkr ue trk`khjkmdr du tbitkr

ebmfmks mfrbgtks mfsgrfefikt÷rfks id sbitfmd mb k`kfxkr k suk gktbcdrfk

prdlfssfdikh.

Ks edmflfgkãòbs mk gktbcdrfk

Edmflfgkãòbs mk prbstkãçd - ^dmbe sbr qukhflfgkmks qukitd kd sbu sbitfmd?

\brtfgkfs? ksgbimbitbs (luiãòbs + fepdrtkitbs)1 du mbsgbimbitbs (luiãòbs -)

Jdrfzditkfs? 5 crku mb fepdrtkigfk

Khcueks edmflfgkãòbs bstçd, î pkrtfmk gditfmks mbitrd md pdmbr mb mfrbgãçd1 dutrks

bxfcbe uek edmflfgkãçd md pr÷prfd gditrktd mb trk`khjd. Ks edmflfgkãòbs mks

prbstkãòbs md trk`khjd pdmbe sbr ghkssflfgkmks gdisdkitb k suk drfcbe?

Rifhktbrkfs (vditkmb md beprbckmdr)

@fhktbrkh (vditkmb mb ke`ks ks pkrtbs)

Murkmdurks? bvdhuãçd idrekh md gditrktd, qubr ik jdrfzditkh du

vbrtfgkh ksgbmbitb





^rbgërfks? idrekhebitb su`stftufãòbs b bstkd ks vbzbs prbvfstks ik GG]

ds sbus gdimfgfdikhfseds b blbftds

Mbitrd md dòbgtd md gditrktd bstçd ks mfvbrsks luiãòbs gdrrbspdimbitbs î gktbcdrfk

gditrktukh (krt. ;;:¿) pdmbimd ibstb àe`ftd d beprbckmdr mbsfcikr ks luiãòbs qub

bitbimbr? æ d iÿghbd murd md pdmbr mfrbgtfvd. Fcukhebitb mbitrd md dòbgtd md

gditrktd bstçd kfimk dutrks luiãòbs luigfdikhebitb hfckmks kd k`rfcd md prfigåpfd mk

pdhfvkhïigfk. Içd gdeprbbimfmds id dòbgtd md gditrktd bstçd mflbrbitbs luiãòbs

bxgbpgfdikfs b tbepdrërfks ks qukfs gdigrbtfzke d ous vkrfkimf md beprbckmdr (krt.

;0>¿).

Ldrk md pdmbr mfrbgtfvd bstçd ks edmflfgkãòbs `fhktbrkfs oë qub d trk`khjkmdr ks pdmb

du içd kgbftkr (uek vbz kgbftb k edlfgfgkãkd gditrktukh, d trk`khjkmdr lfgk

su`drmfikmd kd pmdbr mfrbgtfvd rbmblfifmd pdr bssk edmflfgkãçd)

Ks gdefssòbs mb sbrvfãd ‗ kmefifstrkmdrbs (gktbcdrfk luigfdikh supbrfdr mk beprbsk),

mfrbgtdrbs b sbgrbtërfks pbssdkfs

K gktbcdrfk gdrrbspdimb k uek pdsfãçd pbrekibitb b sbe pdssf`fhfmkmb mb

rbtrdcrkmkãçd, k içd sbr bxgbpgfdikhebitb. Eks jë sftukãòbs bspbgfkfs qub ldcbe k

bstb pkràebtrd qub sçd ks gdefssòbs mb sbrvfãd qub prbssupòbe uek rbhktfvk

kedvf`fhfmkmb mbvfmk ë bspbgfkh rbhkãçd mb gdilfkiãk. K mfsgfphfik mk gdefssçd mb

sbrvfãd gdistk mds krts. ;<;¿ k ;<=¿ b sçd ue edmd mb mbsbepbijd mb gbrtds gkrcds

guok ikturbzk sb luimk be bspbgfkh rbhkãçd mb gdilfkiãk. D qub gkrkgtbrfzk k

gdefssçd mb sbrvfãd æ k trkisftdrfbmkmb mk luiãçd b k rbvbrsf`fhfmkmb md rbspbgtfvd

tftuhd prdlfssfdikh.

D Bxbrgågfd mb gkrcds be gdefssçd mb sbrvfãd æ kgdrmkmd pbhks pkrtbs, pdr bsgrftd,

gde rblbrbigfk bxprbssk k bstb rbcfeb, gde fimfgkãçd md gkrcd/luiãòbs k

mbsbepbijkr b mks kgtfvfmkmbs bxbrgfmks b k bxbrgbr, kitbs b mbpdfs mk gdefssçd?

G.W Fitbriks? ds trk`khjkmdrbs mk pr÷prfk beprbsk sçd gjkekmds k

mbsbepbijkr luiãòbs mb mfrbgãçd du mb bspbgfkh gdilfkiãk, ik `ksb mb

rbcrbsskrbe, lfimk k g.s, kd sbu huckr mb drfcbe.

G.W. bxtbrik? trk`khjkmdrbs qub mbsbepbijke bspbgfkfs luiãòbs sçd

gditrktkmds km jdg ldrk mk beprbsk, iue rbcfeb ekfs lrëcfh b qub prdvdgk

muvfmks. Lfimk k g.s gbssk d G].

^rfigfpfd k g.s pdmb gbsskr gde kitbgbmïigfk mb 7>mfks (rbcfeb murkmd ktb0kids)

du <> mfks (rbcfeb murdu ekfs mb 0kids).




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik ==

Krt. ;<=¿ mfrbftds mds trk`khjkmdrbs lfimk k g.s?

Ckrkitb d rbcrbssd îs luiãòbs bxbrgfmks

^dssf`fhfmkmb mb rbsgfsçd md gditrktd pdr pkrtb md trk`khjkmdr gde mfrbtd k

fimbeifzkãçd

G.W bxtbrik gditrktd bxtfick-sb gde d tbred mk g.s, ebmfkitb d pkckebitd

mb uek fimbeifzkãkd

D hdgkh mb trk`khjd

Lfxkãçd md hdgkh mb trk`khjd

^krk qub d trk`khjkmdr pdssk rbkhfzkr d trk`khjd k qub sb gdeprdebtbu æ ibgbssërfd

qub skf`k d hdgkh dimb d mbvb lkzbr. K hbf içd bstk`bhbgb d huckr dimb mbvb sbrblbgtukmk k prbstkãçd md trk`khjd eks bstë fephågftd sbeprb ue mbtbrefikmd huckr

pkrk k bxbguãçd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd. fstd pdrqub æ ibssb huckr qub sb

drckifzke ks kgtfvfmkmbs fitbrmbpbimbitbs prbstkmds pbhds vërfds trk`khjkmdrbs? sçd

ÿtbfs kds lfis beprbskrfkfs qukimd rbkhfzkmks id rbspbgtfvd huckr.

Bstkeds ik prbsbiãk mb uek prbstkãçd qub mbvb sbr blbgtukmk iue mbtbrefikmd

huckr, be rbcrk id hdgkh dimb luigfdik k beprbsk. W÷ kssfe içd sugbmbrë qukitd kds

sbrvfãds qub bivdhvbe prbstkãòbs be vërfds hdgkfs du be qub bhbs ebsed pdssube

gkrëgtbr ke`uhkt÷rfd bx. tkrblks mb rbpkrkãçd mb eëqufiks.

D hdgkh mb trk`khjd æ ektærfk gditrktukh mb kgdrmd gde d krt. ;67¿;G] b bssk

bstfpuhkãçd æ bxfcïigfk feprbsgfimåvbh mk beprbsk k qub sb mbstfik k ldrãk mb

trk`khjd. Ik vbrmkmb, k prbstkãçd md trk`khjd kpbiks pdmb sbrvfr ds fitbrbssbs md

grbmdr sb ldr mbsbepbijkmk id huckr gdivbigfdikmd, pdfs s÷ kå k bitfmkmb

beprbckmdrk bstë be gdimfãòbs mb k gdiouckr gde k ldrãk mb trk`khjd. ^dmb mfzbr-

sb qub d huckr lfxkmd pkrk k prbstkãçd æ edmkhfmkmb bssbigfkh mk ebsek prbstkãçd.

Gditumd, d gditrktd içd sb pdmb tbr gdighuåmd sbe qub ks pkrtbs kgdrmbe ik

mbtbrefikãçd md hdgkh mb trk`khjd.

Mb kgdrmd gde d hdgkh be qub trk`khjk, vkf d trk`khjkmdr drckifzkr d sbu phkid mb

vfmk. Gde blbftd, trk`khjkr iue mbtbrefikmd huckr sfciflfgk d ebsed qub fr vfvbr pkrk

bssb huckr. K mblfifãçd md huckr mb trk`khjd gdrrbspdimb k ue fitbrbssb luimkebitkh

md trk`khjkmdr, içd æ uek ghëusuhk mb ebrd fitbrbssb mk beprbsk. Æ mb rbobftkr, pdfs,

qub d trk`khjkmdr bstbok suobftd k tdmd d edebitd k vbr khtbrkmd d hdgkh mb trk`khjd

gded sb tkh mbgfsçd sb pumbssb fighufr id pdmbr mfrbgtfvd mk beprbsk.





Ckrkitfk mb fikedvf`fhfmkmb

D hdgkh mb trk`khjd içd pdmbrë, be prfigåpfd, sbr uifhktbrkhebitb khtbrkmd, bstk rbcrk

æ rbklfrekmk ktrkvæs mk gdiskcrkãçd mk ckrkitfk mk fikedvf`fhfmkmb. Ids tbreds md

krt. ;06¿/;, l) G] skhvd sb jduvbr kgdrmd b ids gksds prbvfstds ik hbf b be FPG], sbimd ds

kgtds gditrërfds k tkh ckrkitfk gdisfmbrkmds gded vfdhkãçd md gditrktd, bstk idrek æ

kptk k gdilbrfr kd trk`khjkmdr mfrbftd k rbsdhuãçd gde ks rbspbgtfvks fimbeifzkãòbs

(krt. 76=¿/0, `)). Ebsed iks gfrguistkigfks be qub k trkislbrïigfk uifhktbrkh æ hfgftk

pdmb d trk`khjkmdr prbvkhbgbr-sb mk lkguhmkmb mb pdr lfe febmfktkebitb kd

gditrktd kfimk qub sbe mfrbftd k fimbeifzkãçd.

^dmbr mfrbgtfvd b d hdgkh mb trk`khjd

Bstb pdmbr sdebitb æ bxbrgfmd mbitrd mds qukmrds md gditrktd. Mbsmb hdcd, pdmb

jkvbr id gditrktd uek kephk prbvfsçd md hdgkh mb trk`khjd mbpdfs bspbgflfgkmk pbhd

beprbckmdr, id usd md sbu pdmbr mb mfrbgãçd. D hdgkh mk prbstkãçd æ, be rbcrk,

gdfigfmbitb gde kqubhb be qub sftuk k beprbsk. Ds pdstds mb trk`khjd tïe

bvfmbitbebitb uek sftukãçd id bspkãd, qub khfës ibe sbeprb æ pbrekibitb

pdmbimd kssuefr ks gkrkgtbråstfgks ke`uhkt÷rfks.

K rbcrk æ k sbcufitb? d pdmbr mfrbgtfvd mk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk qukitd î

mbtbrefikãçd md huckr mk prbstkãçd lfgk gfrguisgrftd î zdik cbdcrëlfgk

gditrktukhebitb gde`fikmk qub idrekhebitb gdfigfmb gde k ërbk bivdhvb md

bstk`bhbgfebitd. D pdmbr mfrbgtfvd gdisfmbrk-sb kfimk rbhktfvkebitb î hdgkhfzkãçd

mks kgãòbs mb ldrekãçd prdlfssfdikh euftks vbzbs ldrk mk beprbsk ‗ krt.;67¿/0 G].

^dssf`fhfmkmbs mb trkislbrïigfk uifhktbrkh

D luigfdikebitd idrekh mb uek beprbsk ibe sbeprb sbrë gdepktåvbh gde ue

bitbimfebitd råcfmd mk ekiutbiãçd md hdgk gdivbigfdikmd, b pdrtkitd, mk

fikedvf`fhfmkmb. Eks uek trkislbrïigfk mk beprbsk d`rfck k eumkiãk mb pbssdks b

`bis. Drk, bssk ed`fhfmkmb mk beprbsk sbrfk prboumfgkmk sb k ckrkitfk mb

fikedvf`fhfmkmb pbreftfssb kds trk`khjkmdrbs rbguskr sbeprb qukhqubr eumkiãk mb

hdgkh mb trk`khjd.

K phkiflfgkãçd bgdi÷efgk bxfcb k ed`fhfmkmb cbdcrëlfgk mks beprbsks b fssd

fephfgk, ldrãdskebitb, uek rbhktfvk ed`fhfmkmb mk eçd-mb-d`rk kd sbu sbrvfãd. Be

dutrd phkid, ebsed iue qukmrd mb bstk`fhfmkmb cbdcrëlfgk mk sftukãçd mks

beprbsks, rkzòbs mb pbssdkh pdmbe kgdisbhjkr mbshdgkãòbs mds trk`khjkmdrbs.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik =<

Wbeprb sb bitbimbrke gded fhågftks ks drmbis mds beprbckmdrbs id sbitfmd mb

trkislbrfr trk`khjkmdrbs fimfvfmukhebitb du d gdiouitd md pbssdkh be sbrvfãd. D idssd

hbcfshkmdr mbsmb k HG] bstk`bhbgb ghkrkebitb k pdssf`fhfmkmb mb trkislbrïigfk ebsed

mbtbrefikmk uifhktbrkhebitb pbhd beprbckmdr, mbsmb qub tbijk su`okgbitb ue

qukmrd edtfvkmdr sulfgfbitbebitb ldrtb b be qub sb tutbhb d trk`khjkmdr trkislbrfmd.

Ghkssfgkebitb ‗ jdob sbe fitbrbssb

]rkislbrbigfks Gdhbgtfvks? gdiouitd ekfdr du ebids mb trk`khjkmdrbs hfckmds

kd bstk`bhbgfebitd du pkrtb md bstk`bhbgfebitd qub eumk mb huckr

]rkislbrbigfks Fimfvfmukfs? bebrcbitbs mk mbshdgkãçd mb trk`khjkmdr du

trk`khjkmdrbs sb, qub sb tbijke vbrflfgkmd eumkiãk mds bstk`bhbgfebitds.

Kgtukhebitb tbe sb be gditk d qukmrd hbckh edtfvkmdr mk trkislbrbigfk

]rkislbrïigfk edtfvkmk pdr eumkiãk du bxtfiãçd tdtkh du pkrgfkh md

bstk`bhbgfebitd, tbimd ue rbcfeb ebids rbstrftfvd

]rkislbrïigfk tbe dutrk edtfvkãçd mb bxfcïigfk md fitbrbssb mk beprbsk,

bstkimd ibstb gksd ebhjdr tutbhkmk k pdsfãçd md trk`khjkmdr

Ks trkislbrïigfks mbvbe sbr gdeuifgkmks pdr bsgrftd, gde k rbspbgtfvk

luimkebitkãçd, pbhd beprbckmdr kd trk`khjkmdr du trk`khjkmdrbs gde : du 7> mfks

mb kitbgfpkãçd gdisdkitb sboke tbepdrërfks du mblfiftfvks (krt. ;6<¿).

‚‖vbrmkmbfrks trkislbrbigfks‖‖ ‗ bivdhvbe eumkiãk md qukmrd mb vfmk md

trk`khjkmdr, id qub sb rblbrb î hdgkhfzkãçd mk prbstkãçd

Ks trkislbrïigfks fimfvfmukhfzkmks, qukimd k beprbsk tbe fitbrbssb be trkislbrfr d

trk`khjkmdr, kpbiks sçd hfgftks qukimd içd mbtbrefibe prbouåzd særfd pkrk bstb

fitbrbssbs mk beprbsk sd`rbvkhbe ks gdivbifïigfks md trk`khjkmdr mbsmb qub bssb

skgrflågfd içd uhtrkpkssb ds hfeftbs mb ue prbouåzd sbrfd.

^biskeds qub ds ÷ius mk khbckãçd b prdvk rbhktfvkebitb î içd bxfstïigfk mb

prbouåzd pbrtbigbe kd beprbckmdr. Wb d beprbckmdr içd lfzbr prdvk mk fibxfstïigfk

mb prbouåzd sbrfd içd gdistftuf d sbu mfrbftd k trkislbrfr d trk`khjkmdr b

gdisbqubitbebitb mbvbrk kgbftkr k fibxbguãçd pbhd ebsed trk`khjkmdr mk drmbe

mb trkislbrïigfk fimfvfmukh. Wb d beprbckmdr prbtbimbr fepdr k trkislbrïigfk qub

gkusk prbouåzd særfd, d trk`khjkmdr pdmbrë?

Ibckr-sb k gueprfr k drmbe fhågftk kprbsbitkimd-sb id gdepbtbitb hdgkh mb

trk`khjd





Wbimd k kusïigfk mb prbouåzd uek gkusk mb hfgftumb b sb bstk gdimfãçd içd sb

vbrflfgkr, bstb içd æ d`rfckmd k d`bmbgbr, pdmbimd gditfiukr k dlbrbgbr k prbstkãçd

id ebsed hdgkh mb trk`khjd.

K hbtrk md krt. ;6=¿/2 G] pkrbgb sucbrfr qub d trk`khjkmdr pdmfk rbsdhvbr d gditrktd,

kfimk gde mfrbftd k gdepbiskãçd Ouhckeds pdræe qub bstk sdhuãçd s÷ æ ldrãdsk

id gksd mb trkislbrïigfks be qub bstë klkstkmk î pkrtfmk k pdssf`fhfmkmb mb d

trk`khjkmdr pbrekibgbr id kitbrfdr hdgkh mb trk`khjd, mkmk k eumkiãk du bxtfiãçd,

tdtkh du pkrgfkh md bstk`bhbgfebitd be qub sb hdgkhfzkvk d sbu pdstd

]rkislbrïigfks gdhbgtfvks pdr eumkiãk mb bstk`bhbgfebitd

K hbf su`drmfik ks gdivbifïigfks mds trk`khjkmdrbs be prbstkr sbrvfãd id hdgkh

gdivbigfdikmd kds fitbrbssbs mk beprbsk eks bstk eumkiãk bstë suobftk kd pkrbgbr

prævfd bsgrftd mk gdefssçd mds trk`khjkmdrbs (krt. =02¿, `)). K su`drmfikãçd mb

fitbrbssbs içd æ tdtkh pdfs d trk`khjkmdr, sb kssfe qufsbr, pdmbrë rbsdhvbr d gditrktd

(krt. 76=¿/7, `)) b sb jduvbr prbouåzd særfd rbgb`brë ks rbspbgtfvks fimbeifzkãòbs.

D ÷ius mk khbckãçd b prdvk md prbouåzd særfd gdepbtfrë, id gksd mb trkislbrïigfk

gdhbgtfvk, kd trk`khjkmdr. ^krk d blbftd pbiskeds qub mbvb sbcufr-sb d prdgbmfebitd

lfxkmd pkrk ks sftukãòbs mb rbsdhuãçd pdr oustk gkusk pdr fifgfktfvk md trk`khjkmdr

(krt. 762¿/;), gk`bimd kd trk`khjkmdr gdeuifgkr pdr bsgrftd ks rkzdbs qub

mbtbrefike k dgdrrïigfk mb prbouåzd sbrfd mbrfvkmd mk trkislbrïigfk.

Kd ouhckmdr gdepbtfrë prbgfskr d gdigbftd mb prbouåzd særfd? trktk-sb mb ue mkid

rbhbvkitb qub içd tbijk pbqubik fepdrtàigfk, bilfe, qub mbtbrefib uek khtbrkãçd

su`stkigfkh md phkid mb vfmk md trk`khjkmdr. D G]P prbvfu uek idvk bspægfb mb

trkislbrïigfk k pbmfmd md trk`khjkmdr ‗ krt. ;62¿. ]rktk-sb mb jfp÷tbsb bspbgfkh id

gksd mb vfdhïigfk mdeæstfgk.

]rkislbrïigfk k pbmfmd md trk`khjkmdr (G] prbvfu bstk idvk bspægfb ‗ ;62¿)? jfp÷tbsb

bspbgfkh, gfrguisgrftk kds gksds be qub d trk`khjkmdr æ vftfek mb vfdhïigfk mdebstfgk

sbimd k trkislbrïigfk d`obgtd mb ue mfrbftd, mbsmb qub d trk`khjkmdr tbijk

kprbsbitkmd qubfxk grfeb b skfk mk gksk mb edrkmk mb lkeåhfk id edebitd be qub

sb blbgtfvb k trkislbrïigfk d beprbckmdr æ d`rfckmd k gdisbitfr ik trkislbrïigfk k

ebids qub sb vbrflfqube bxfcïigfks fepbrfdsks hfckmks kd luigfdikebitd mk

beprbsk, du sb içd mfspusbr mb ue pdstd mb trk`khjd gdepktåvbh, sbimd qub ibstb

gksd d trk`khjkmdr tbe k lkguhkmb mb suspbimbr d gditrktd ktb kd edebitd be qub

k trkislbrïigfk md hdgkh mb trk`khjd pdssk sb gdigrbtfzkr.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik =:

]rkislbrïigfks prbvfstks id gditrktd

Euftks sftukãòbs jë be qub k mbshdgkãçd md trk`khjkmdr bstë prbvfstk, bxprbssk du

tkgftkebitb, id gditrktd. Mflbrbitbebitb mbstbs kgdrmds rbstrftfvds du kephfktfvds mb

trkislbrïigfk sbrçd dutrds gksds mb hdgkh mb trk`khjd mblfifmd be luiãçd mk ikturbzk

mk kgtfvfmkmb. Be tdmds bstbs gksds, k d`rfckãçd mb d`bmbgbr î trkislbrïigfk

drmbikmk pbhd beprbckmdr bstë mfrbgtkebitb gdibxfdikmk gde d gditrktd, kfimk

qub pdrvbiturk tbimd be gditk k vditkmb jfpdtætfgks mks pkrtbs. ]ke`æe ks

gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks sb rblbrbe euftks vbzbs î ektærfk prbvbimd k hbf qub tke`æe

ds FPG]s pdmbe klkstkr k mfsgfphfik hbckh mk trkislbrïigfk ‗ krt. ;6=¿/<. Bxfstb d prkzd

mb mdfs kids pkrk kphfgkãçd md kgdrmd.

Gurtks mbshdgkãòbs b trkislbrïigfks tbepdrërfks

Jë qub mfstficufr ks gurtks mbshdgkãòbs mks trkislbrïigfks tbepdrërfks.

D`rfcktdrfbmkmb md trk`khjkmdr rbkhfzkr ks mbshdgkãòbs fibrbitbs îs suks

luiãòbs du fimfspbisëvbfs î suk ldrekãçd prdlfssfdikh ‗ ;67¿/0 mbshdgkãòbs

mb gurtk murkãçd qub içd klbgtke sbrfkebitb k bstk`fhfmkmb md trk`khjkmdr

trkislbrïigfks tbepdrërfks qub oë gkuske khcue k`khd î bstk`fhfmkmb mb vfmk

supdstk pbhk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd be mbtbrefikmd huckr.

Jë tdmkvfk khcueks mfstfiãòbs? k lkguhmkmb mb rbsdhuãçd prbvfstk id krt. ;6=¿/2 surcb

kpbiks kssdgfkmk î trkislbrïigfk mblfiftfvk1 æ mfvbrsd d rbcfeb mb pkckebitd mb

mbspbsks b d prkzd pkrk k gdeuifgkãçd mk trkislbrïigfk æ su`stkigfkhebitb ekfs

gurtd pkrk ks trkislbrïigfks tbepdrkrfks (3 mfks be vbz mb 7> mfks).

K hbf prbvï uek sftukãçd fitbreæmfk mb bebrcïigfk tbepdrërfk gde bxprbssçd pkrk

k`khkr k idrekhfmkmb mk vfmk md trk`khjkmdr.

]rkislbrïigfk tbepdrërfk hfeftkmk pdr ue pbrådmd eëxfed mb <ebsbs, skhvd bxfstke

sftukãòbs mb bxfcïigfks fepbrfdsks md luigfdikebitd mk beprbsk ‗ ;6=/7

Wb k mbshdgkãçd gdrrbspdimbr k khcd mbgdrrbitb mfrbgtkebitb md gditrktd sbcufr-sb-

ë d rbcfeb bstfpuhkmd pkrk ks mbshdgkãòbs mb sbrvfãd. Ibstbs gksds içd tbe sbitfmd k

mfsgfphfik md krt.;6=¿ ibe k oustflfgkãçd `ksbkmk iuek bxfcïigfk mb fitbrbssb mk

beprbsk ibe d kvfsd prævfd mb uek sbekik md krt.;6<¿. Gdisfmbrke-sb ks gurtks

mbshdgkãòbs gded gdeprbbimfmks id pdmbr mfrbgtfvd idrekh md beprbckmdr.





Mbspbsks fepdstks pbhk trkislbrïigfk?

Iks trkislbrïigfks tbepdrërfks prbvï-sb d pkckebitd pbhd beprbckmdr mks mbspbsks

mbgdrrbitbs md kgræsgfed mds gustds mb mbshdgkãçd b rbsuhtkitbs md khdokebitd1

pkrk ks trkislbrïigfks mblfiftfvks mbtbrefik-sb qub d beprbckmdr gustbfb ks mbspbsks

gdibxks gde d kgræsgfed mds gustds mb mbshdgkãçd b rbsuhtkitbs mk eumkiãk mb

rbsfmïigfk. ]rktkr-sb-ë mb mbspbsks b pdrtkitd mb mbsbe`dhsds.

K beprbsk içd bstë d`rfckmk k gustbkr dutrds bigkrcds bx. kuebitd mb mbspbsks

pbhd lkgtd md supbrfdr gustd mb vfmk. Ks beprbsks tïe idrekhebitb ds sbus bsqubeks

pr÷prfds.

Fivbiãòbs b grfkãòbs hftbrërfks, gfbitålfgks b krtåstfgks md trk`khjkmdr

^dmb sugbmbr qub murkitb k bxbguãçd md gditrktd d trk`khjkmdr fivbitb du grfb.

Wurcb bitçd k mÿvfmk qukitd î tftuhkrfmkmb mk fivbiãçd du mk grfkãçd, ekfs

bxkgtkebitb mk pktbitb b md mfrbftd mb kutdr.

]rktkimd-sb mb fivbiãòbs tbeds mb mfstficufr gdisdkitb d gditrktd mb

trk`khjd k prbvbok b fighuk ik rbspbgtfvk prbstkãçd hk`drkh, pdmbimd ebsed

ktrf`ufr-hjb uek rbeuibrkãçd bspbgfkh. Ik prfebfrk jfp÷tbsb d beprbckmdr

tbe mfrbftd î pktbitb mb fivbiãçd, ik sbcuimk tbe mfrbftd mb dpãçd qukitd î

ebsek pktbitb pdmbimd bstb gdigrbtfzkr-sb ik kqufsfãçd mk suk prdprfbmkmb

du kpbiks ik suk bxphdrkãçd bxghusfvk b tbe kfimk mfrbftd k sbr ebigfdikmd

gded fivbitdr id rbqubrfebitd b id tftuhd mk pktbitb1

]rktkimd-sb mb grfkãòbs fitbhbgtukfs k tftuhkrfmkmb md mfrbftd mb kutdr æ lfxkmk

pdr kgdrmd mks pkrtbs. Lkhtkimd tkh kgdrmd k tftuhkrfmkmb md mfrbftd mb kutdr

mbtbrefik-sb pdr kphfgkãçd mb muks rbcrks gdephbebitkrbs? prbsueb-sb qub

k tftuhkrfmkmb md mfrbftd mb kutdr pbrtbigb kd rbspbgtfvd grfkmdr fitbhbgtukh.

K ktrf`ufãçd kd beprbckmdr mk tftuhkrfmkmb md mfrbftd mb kutdr sd`rb grfkãçd md

trk`khjkmdr fephfgk, be rbcrk, d pkckebitd k bstb mb uek gditrkpkrtfmk.

]bepd mb trk`khjd

D gditrktd mb trk`khjd mbstfik-sb k pbrsfstfr id tbepd sktfslkzbimd ibgbssfmkmbs

murkmdurks mds gditrkbitbs. Gk`b kd beprbckmdr gde`fikr b gddrmbikr ds

bhbebitds prdmutfvds phkiflfgkimd-ds id bspkãd b id tbepd? sb k bitfmkmb

beprbckmdrk ibgbssftk mb : jdrks trk`khjd/mfk d trk`khjkmdr içd pdmbrë prbtbimbr

bxbgutkr k suk prbstkãçd pdr ldrek k rbkhfzkr ;0 jdrks iue mfk b = idutrd.





Æ prbgfsd tbr be gditk qub k rbkhfzkãçd qudtfmfkik b gditfiukmk mk kgtfvfmkmb

hk`drkh bivdhvb uek mkmk fitbisfmkmb mb bsldrãd b mb lkmfck md trk`khjkmdr b æ pdr

fssd ibgbssërfd qub d Mfrbftd bstk`bhbãk hfeftbs kd iåvbh mb lkmfck susgbptåvbh mb sbr

fepdstd kd trk`khjkmdr qub hjb ckrkitk bspkãd pkrk k lkeåhfk, d mbsgkisd b d hkzbr,

skhvkcukrmkimd, be suek, k pdrãçd hfvrb mk suk bxfstïigfk. Lfikhebitb, k gdhdgkãçd

md mæ`ftd hk`drkh id tbepd pdmb sbr dlbrbgfmk be pbrådmd mfvbrsd md bstk`bhbgfmd oë

qub be dutrk khturk mbfxk mb fitbrbsskr kd beprbckmdr. D trk`khjd qub içd sb

prbstdu ik sbcuimk-lbfrk oë içd pdmb sbr prbstkmd ik tbrãk-lbfrk.

^brådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd (;6:)

Mbsfcik d tbepd qub d trk`khjkmdr sb gdeprdebtb k prbstkr, ebmfmd be iÿebrd mb

jdrks, pdr mfk b pdr sbekik (krt. ;6:¿). Mbsbepbijk idrekhebitb uek luiãçd

bssbigfkh ik gdistruãçd md sfikhkcek gditrktukh b gdrrbspdimb î qukitfmkmb mb

trk`khjd qub d trk`khjkmdr sb d`rfck k prbstkr, be luiãçd md qukh sb bstk`bhbgb

mkmk rbtrf`ufãçd. K suk mblfifãçd lkz-sb gdivbigfdikhebitb.

K hbf fitbrvæe gded hfeftb î hf`brmkmb mb bstfpuhkãçd b grfk `khfzks î murkãçd eëxfek

kmefssåvbh md trk`khjd be gkmk mfk b be gkmk sbekik. K murkãçd eëxfek md

pbrådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd sbekikh bstë lfxkmk be => jdrks (krt. 0>7¿/; G]), b

mfkrfkebitb be :jdrks. D hbcfshkmdr kmeftb murkãçd ekfdr md trk`khjd mfërfd (ktæ

;0j) rbhktfvkebitb kds trk`khjkmdrbs qub kpbiks hk`drb ids mfks mb mbsgkisd

sbekikh mds mbekfs trk`khjkmdrbs (krt. 0>7¿/0) bqufpks mb lfe mb sbekik. Bstbs

hfeftbs sçd rbpdrtkmds î idãçd mb tbepd mb trk`khjd tkh gded mblfifmk id krt.;63¿;.

]bepds mb tbrgbfrd tfpd? qubstçd mfsgutfmk pbhd ]rf`uikh mb Oustfãk mk BR b id àe`ftd

mk mfrbgtfvk sd`rb tbepd mb trk`khjd k qukhflfgkãçd mds pbrådmds be qub d

trk`khjkmdr qub içd bstk k rbkhfzkr k suk kgtfvfmkmb eks mbvb-sb ekitbr mfspdiåvbh

pkrk bssb blbftd

Pbhktfvkebitb kd pbrådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd mfërfd, kmeftb-sb pditukhebitb b gde

gkrëgtbr bxgbpgfdikh, ue pbrådmd mb tdhbràigfk ktæ ;2 efiutds pkrk lfikhfzkãçd mb

kgtfvfmkmbs du dpbrkãòbs qub içd pdsske sbr fitbrrdepfmks (krt. 0>7¿/7) içd æ

trk`khjd suphbebitkr eks mbvb sbr pkcd. Bstb edmbhd mb drckifzkãçd md tbepd mb

trk`khjd, mbsfcikmd gded kmkptk`fhfmkmb, pdmb sbr kmdptkmd pdr fistruebitd mb

rbcuhkebitkãçd gdhbgtfvk (krt. 0>=¿) du pdr kgdrmd gde gkmk ue mds trk`khjkmdrbs

bivdhvfmds (krt. 0>2¿). Ekiflbstk-sb uek prblbrïigfk pbhd rbgursd k fistruebitds mb

rbcuhkebitkãçd gdhbgtfvk mb trk`khjd.





Idtb-sb qub, pkrk khæe mds hfeftbs î murkãçd mfërfk b sbekikh md trk`khjd d

hbcfshkmdr fepòb, id krt. 0;;¿ ue hfeftb k`sdhutd b pkrk guod gýeputd sb ktbimb içd

kpbiks kd trk`khjd gditrktukhebitb prbvfstd, gded tke`æe kd trk`khjd

suphbebitkr mb qukhqubr tfpd. Ids tbreds mbstk mfspdsfãçd, k murkãçd eæmfk md

trk`khjd sbekikh fighufimd trk`khjd suphbebitkr, içd pdmb bxgbmbr =:j iue pbrådmd

mb rblbrïigfk qub æ, be rbcrk, mb = ebsbs (FPG] pdmb rbmuzfr du kephfkr)

^brådmd mb luigfdikebitd (0>;)

[ub sb rblbrb kd bstk`bhbgfebitd du uifmkmb prdmutfvk mk beprbsk, gdisfstb id

pbrådmd mfërfd murkitb d qukh ds bstk`bhbgfebitds pdmbe bxbrgbr k suk kgtfvfmkmb b

æ mblfifmd pbhks jdrks md fifgfd b md tbred mb kgtfvfmkmb mfërfk b pbhd bigbrrkebitd

sbekikh, sb d jduvbr (krt. 0>;¿). Ik fimÿstrfk æ mbsfcikmd pdr pbrådmd mb hk`drkãçd,

tbimd ids bstk`bhbgfebitds mb vbimk kd pÿ`hfgd k mbsfcikãçd mb pbrådmd mb

k`brturk. D pbrådmd tbe k vbr gde k rbcuhkebitkãçd bgdi÷efgk b k kmkptkãçd mk

kgtfvfmkmb mks beprbsks kds rfteds sdgfkfs bsgkpk kd dòbgtd mfrbgtd md Mfrbftd md

]rk`khjd. Bxfstbe khcueks rbstrfãòbs be hbcfshkãçd kvuhsk gded k rbhktfvk k crkimbs

supbrlågfbs gdebrgfkfs guok k`brturk kds mdeficds b lbrfkmds æ gdimfgfdikmk.

Ds pbrådmds mb luigfdikebitd bxfcbe k prbstkãçd mb sbrvfãd pdr trk`khjkmdrbs gde

rbspbftd pbhks `khfzks mbgdrrbitbs md sbu pbrådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd. Ids gksds be

qub ds pbrådmds mb luigfdikebitd sçd supbrfdrbs kd Î] bxfcb-sb k gditrktkãçd mb

ekfs md qub ue trk`khjkmdr pkrk dgupkr d ebsed pdstd mb trk`khjd (trk`khjd pdr

turids)

Jdrërfd mb trk`khjd (0>>)

Gdisfstb ik mbtbrefikãçd mks jdrks md fifgfd b md tbred md pbrådmd idrekh mb

trk`khjd mfërfd b mds fitbrvkhds mb mbsgkisd `be gded md mbsgkisd sbekikh

mbhfeftkimd d pbrådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd mfërfd b sbekikh (krts. 0>>¿/; b 0).

Pbprbsbitk d bigditrd bitrb d pbrådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd md trk`khjkmdr b d pbrådmd

mb luigfdikebitd mk beprbsk. Gdepbtb î bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk bstk`bhbgbr b

mbtbrefikr d jdrërfd mb trk`khjd luiãçd tåpfgk mk cbstkd.

Mbvb fcukhebitb sbr d`sbrvkmd d biqukmrkebitd cbrkh md luigfdikebitd b md

bigbrrkebitd k qub d bstk`bhbgfebitd bstbok gdigrbtkebitb suèbtfmd (0;0¿;).

Wdlrb ds gdimfgfdikebitds mbgdrrbitbs md pbrådmd mb luigfdikebitd b md pbrådmd

idrekh mb trk`khjd be gkmk mfk.





K hbf kmeftb qub d jdrërfd mb trk`khjd sbok lfxkmd pdr kgdrmd bspbgfkh bitrb

beprbckmdr b trk`khjkmdr (krt. 0;3¿/=). Grbeds qub bstk sdhuãçd rbsuhtk md krt.=3:¿/;,

`) qub prdå`b kds fistruebitds mb rbcuhkebitkãçd gdhbgtfvk rbcuhkebitkr

kgtfvfmkmbs bgdi÷efgks idebkmkebitb pbrådmds mb luigfdikebitd. B æ

prbgfskebitb pdrqub sb tdedu gdisgfïigfk md fepbmfebitd qub pdmb gdistftufr pkrk

d luigfdikebitd mks beprbsks k lfxkãçd mb ue jdrërfd pdr vfk gdhbgtfvk qub k hbf

prdå`b bxprbsskebitb k rbcuhkebitkãçd mds pbrådmds mb luigfdikebitd.

Gdisfmbrkeds, pdfs, qub k mblfifãçd pdr vfk gdhbgtfvk md jdrërfd gditrkrfk ks

hfeftkãòbs fepdstks hbckhebitb kds fistruebitds mb rbcuhkebitkãçd gdhbgtfvk. Khfës,

pkrbgb-ids khtkebitb muvfmdsd qub k gdepbtïigfk pktrdikh mb mblfifr ds jdrërfds mb

trk`khjd, prbvfstk id krt. 0;0¿/; pdssk sbr pdstk be gkusk.

Ik vbrmkmb, k hbf prbvï gded rbcrk k kumfãçd mds ÷rcçds mb gditrdhd mb

trk`khjkmdrbs ik beprbsk içd mds ÷rcçds rbfvfimfgktfvds guok kumfãçd æ gdisuhtfvk.

Gk`bimd k lfxkãçd md jdrërfd mb trk`khjd kd beprbckmdr æ bstb qub mbvb prdgbmbr

î suk khtbrkãçd d`sbrvkimd-sb ds gdimfgfdikhfseds qub hfeftke be cbrkh k suk

lfxkãçd (krt. 0;3¿). ]dmkvfk ids gksds be qub d jdrkrfd tbijk sfmd ibcdgfkmd

fimfvfmukhebitb, k hbf bstfpuhk qub k suk edlfgfkãkd sd pdmbrë dgdrrbr gde d

gdisbitfebitd md trk`khjkmdr ‗ 0;3/=

^dr dutrd hkmd, rbgdijbgb-sb kds trk`khjkmdrbs d mfrbftd k uek gdepbiskãçd

bgdi÷efgk qukimd ks khtbrkãòbs kds rbspbgtfvds jdrërfds mb trk`khjd fephfqube

pkrk bhbs ue kgræsgfed mb mbspbsks (krt. 0;3¿) prd`hbek hbcfshkmdr içd bspbgflfgdu

qukfs ks mbspbsks guod kgræsgfed mk mfrbftd î rblbrfmk gdepbiskãçd ibe fimfgdu ds

grftærfds qub pbreftfssb mbhfeftkr ks mbspbsks tfmks be vfstk

D prfigåpfd cbrkh æ d mb qub k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk bstë d`rfckmk k lfxkr ue

jdrërfd k tdmds ds trk`khjkmdrbs eks kmeftb-sb k bxfstïigfk mb rbcfebs mb fsbiãçd

mb jdrërfd mb trk`khjd qub pdmbe sbr kphfgkmds k gbrtds tfpds mb trk`khjkmdrbs? kds

qub mbsbepbijbe luiãòbs mb kmefifstrkãçd, mfrbgãçd, gdilfkiãk b lfsgkhfzkãçd du

mb kpdfd kds tftuhkrbs mbssbs gkrcds, kqubhbs qub bxbgutbe trk`khjds

prbpkrkt÷rfds/gdephbebitkrbs qub pbhk suk ikturbzk sd pdsske sbr prbstkmds ldrk md

hfeftbs mds jdrërfds idrekfs mb trk`khjd. ^dr FPG] pdmb sbr khkrckmd bstb hbqub (krt.

0;:¿/0).





K fsbiãçd mb jdrërfd mb trk`khjd pdmb kssuefr mfvbrsks edmkhfmkmbs (krt. 0;6¿/;).

Içd suobfãçd kds hfeftbs eëxfeds mds Î], sbe prbouåzd md cdzd mds mfks mb

mbsgkisd b mds lbrfkmds, `be gded md mbsgkisd bitrbodrikmks qukimd

içd bxfstk bstfpuhkãçd pbhks pkrtbs

^dssf`fhfmkmb mb khkrckebitd mk prbstkãçd mb ue mbtbrefikmd i¿jdrks, pdr

mfk du pdr sbekik

D`sbrvàigfk mds hfeftbs eëxfeds mds Î] kgdrmkmds, eks gde mfstrfùfãçd

vkrfkvbh

K kphfgkãçd md rbcfeb mb fsbiãçd tbe mb gdistkr mb kgdrmd bsgrftd bitrb

beprbckmdr b trk`khjkmdr, gdilbrfimd k bstb mfrbftd k rbeuibrkãçd bspbgfkh qub

vkrfk be luiãçd mk edmkhfmkmb kmdptkmk (0<2¿). D jdrërfd mb trk`khjd mbvb sbr

gdrpdrfzkmd iue ekpk mb jdrërfd mb trk`khjd qub fimfgk d jdrërfd mb trk`khjd md

trk`khjkmdr, d jdrërfd md luigfdikebitd b d mfk mb bigbrrkebitd (0;2¿ b 0;<¿ G]P).

D sfstbek mb jdrërfd lhbxåvbh pbreftb uek ekfdr pbrsdikhfzkãçd b ue ebhjdr bqufhå`rfd

bitrb k vfmk prfvkmk b d trk`khjd b içd pdmb sbr gdiluimfmk gde k fsbiãçd mk khfbik

g) md i¿ ; md krt. 0;6¿.

Jdrërfds gdigbitrkmds (0>6)? uek lkguhmkmb mb khkrckebitd md pbrådmd idrekh mb

trk`khjd mfërfd ktæ = jdrks (pkrk khæe md hfeftb cbrkh mks : jdrks) pdr ldrek k mfefiufr

d iÿebrd mb mfks mb trk`khjd pdr sbekik sbe rbmuzfr d iÿebrd mb jdrks mb trk`khjd

sbekikh. ^dmb sbr bstk`bhbgfmd pdr FPG] du pdr kgdrmd bitrb

beprbckmdr/trk`khjkmdr. Be rbcrk, d sfstbek pbreftb gdigbitrkr be quktrd mfks mb

trk`khjd pdr sbekik d tdtkh md pbrådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd.

Jkvbimd prbvfsçd be FPG] k gdigbitrkãçd pdmb lkzbr-sb be trïs mfks gdisbgutfvds

sbcufmds mb mdfs mfks mb mbsgkisd. Ibstb gksd, d gfghd pbrådmd mb trk`khjd/mbsgkisd

mbfxk mb gdfigfmfr gde k sbekik mb gkhbimërfd mb 3 mfks. K hbf kgrbsgbitk qub d

jdrërfd gdigbitrkmd mbvb sbr drckifzkmd mb ldrek k kssbcurkr qub k murkãçd md

pbrådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd sbok kpurkmk be eæmfk iue pbrådmd mb rblbrïigfk mb =2

mfks.

K drckifzkãçd md tbepd mb trk`khjd içd fephfgk k prbstkãçd mb ekfdr iÿebrd mb

jdrks tdmkvfk kmeftb-sb qub pdssk cbrkr ekfdr pbidsfmkmb b tkhvbz pdr fssd d krt.

0>6¿/7 prbvï qub d FPG] rbcuhb k rbtrfùfãçd b dutrks gdimfãòbs mk suk kphfgkãçd eks

içd jë ibijuek d`rfckãçd mb pkckr qukhqubr kgræsgfed rbtrfùtfvd. Gk`b kfimk

rblbrfr qub d G÷mfcd (krt. 0>6¿/0) bxghuf k kphfgkãçd sfeuhtàibk mds rbcfebs mb jdrërfd

gdigbitrkmk b mb kmkptk`fhfmkmb md pbrådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd.





]rk`khjd pdr turids

Wbeprb qub d pbrådmd mb luigfdikebitd uhtrkpkssb ds hfeftbs eëxfeds mds pbrådmds

mb trk`khjd mbvbe sbr drckifzkmds turids mb pbssdkh (krt. 00;¿/;). K idãçd mb

trk`khjd pdr turids gdistk md krt. 00>¿.

Ds ids 0 k < md krt. 00;¿ lfxke ue gdiouitd mb rbcrks k d`sbrvkr ik drckifzkãçd mb

trk`khjd pdr turids. Euftd be`drk k hbf d içd fepdijk ks gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks

gdstueke bstk`bhbgbr bspbgfkfs rbgdepbisks vfsk gdepbiskr d kgræsgfed mb

pbidsfmkmb bivdhvfmd ibstk edmkhfmkmb mb prbstkãçd md trk`khjd, k`sdrvbimd, pdr

vbzbs dutrks gdepbiskãòbs

]rk`khjd idgturid

Bitbimb-sb pdr trk`khjd idgturid d qub æ prbstkmd id pbrådmd gdeprbbimfmd bitrb

ks 00j mb ue mfk b ks 3j md mfk sbcufitb kmeftfimd-sb k mblfifãçd be tbreds

mflbrbitbs pdr FPG] (krt. 007¿/0).

Ktbimbimd î suk ekfdr pbidsfmkmb d trk`khjd idgturid më mfrbftd k ue kgræsgfed

mb rbeuibrkãçd mb 02% (krt. 0<<¿/;). Ids tbreds md i¿ 7 md krt. 0<<¿ içd më huckr kd

kgræsgfed rbtrf`utfvd d trk`khjd qub pdr ikturbzk sbok prbmdefikitbebitb murkitb

bssb pbrådmd (mfsgdtbgks), qukimd sbok prbstkmk kd sbrvfãd mb ktfvfkmbs qub pdr suk

ikturbzk du pdr ldrãk mk hbf mbvke luigfdikr murkitb bssb pbrådmd (lkreëgfks) du

kfimk qukimd k rbtrf`ufãçd tbijk sfmd bstk`bhbgfmk ktbimbimd î gfrguistkigfk mb d

trk`khjd mbvbr sbr prbstkmd be pbrådmd idgturid.

Mkmks ks suks fephfgkãòbs k hbf hfeftk k suk prbstkãçd k ebidrbs b gdiskcrk mfvbrsks

ebmfmks mb prdtbgãçd mds trk`khjkmdrbs idgturids gded k ibgbsskrfk suobfãçd k

bxkebs eæmfgds pbrf÷mfgds (krts. 00=¿ b 002¿).

]rk`khjd suphbebitkr?

]dmd kqubhb qub æ prbstkmd ldrk md jdrërfd mb trk`khjd (krt. 00<¿/;). Wbrë suphbebitkr

d trk`khjd kitbs md fiågfd du mbpdfs md lfe mk odrikmk mb trk`khjd du d

dgksfdikhebitb prbstkmd ids mfks mb mbsgkisd sbekikh d`rfckt÷rfd du gdephbebitkr

du kfimk be lbrfkmds.

Gk`b î bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk mbtbrefikr ds edebitds be qub mbvb sbr prbstkmd b

s÷ d pdmbrë mbtbrefikr qukimd sbok ibgbssërfd lkzbr lkgb k kgræsgfeds bvbitukfs b

trkisft÷rfds mb trk`khjd du be gksds mb ldrãk ekfdr du mb bebrcïigfk, be qub sb

edstrb fimfspbisëvbh pkrk prbvbifr du rbpkrkr prbouåzds crkvbs pkrk k beprbsk(krt.





003¿) b k sdhfgftkãçd æ d`rfckt÷rfk pkrk d trk`khjkmdr k ebids qub bstb

bxprbsskebitb sdhfgftb k suk mfspbisk (krt. 003¿/7).

Jë hfeftkãòbs bspbgålfgks pkrk ds gksds mb trk`khjd suphbebitkr ids mfks mb mbsgkisd

sbekikh, d`rfckt÷rfd du gdephbebitkr b ids lbrfkmds (krt. 00:¿/;, b) b l)).

K prbstkãçd md trk`khjd suphbebitkr gdilbrb mfrbftd k rbtrf`ufãçd bspbgfkh (krt. 0<:¿)

b k ue mbsgkisd gdepbisktdrfd (006), mfrbftds bstbs guod rbcfeb mbpbimb md mfk be

qub æ rbkhfzkmd.

Id qub rbspbftk kd mbsgkisd gdepbiskt÷rfd qukimd d trk`khjd suphbebitkr sbok

prbstkmd iue mfk mb mbsgkisd sbekikh d trk`khjkmdr tbe mfrbftd k cdzkr ue mfk mb

mbsgkisd rbeuibrkmd mbitrd mds trïs mfks ÿtbfs sbcufitbs (krt. 006¿/=). Iks sftukãòbs

mb eumkiãk mb turid, qukimd jkok lkhtk feprbvfstk md trk`khjkmdr qub mbvbrfk

dgupkr d pdstd mb trk`khjd, b k su`stftufãçd be rbcfeb mb trk`khjd suphbebitkr içd

bxgbmk muks jdrks, d mbsgkisd gdepbiskt÷rfd sbrk fcukh kd trk`khjd suphbebitkr

prbstkmd.

^krk khæe mfssd, rbhktfvkebitb kd trk`khjd suphbebitkr blbgtukmd be mfks ÿtbfs b be

lbrfkmds kmeftb-sb qub d mbsgkisd gdepbiskt÷rfd pdssk sbr su`stftuåmd pbhd

pkckebitd mk rbtrf`ufãçd gde kgræsgfed mb ;>>% pbhd pbrådmd gdrrbspdimbitb (krt.

07>¿0).

^krk blbftds mb lfsgkhfzkãçd md gueprfebitd md rbspbgtfvd rbcfeb, ks beprbsks bstçd

d`rfckmks k ekitbr ue rbcfstd mb trk`khjd suphbebitkr, sçd kidtkmks ks jdrks mb

fifgfd b tbred mbssb trk`khjd sbimd bxfcfmd qub bssb rbcfstd sbok vfskmd pbhd

trk`khjkmdr (krt. 07;¿).

Kmkptk`fhfmkmb mk murkãçd mb trk`khjd (krt. 0>=¿ k 0>3¿)

D gustd md trk`khjd suphbebitkr, ks hfeftkãòbs ë suk prëtfgk tïe bstfeuhkmd ue

gýeputd md tbepd mb trk`khjd be pbrådmds hdicds uhtrkpksskimd-sb ds hfeftbs mfërfds

b sbekikfs pkrk pbreftfr qub ds trk`khjkmdrbs prbstbe sbrvfãd ekfs mbedrkmd ids

pbrådmds mb ekfdr edvfebitd b ekfs gurtd ids pbrådmds edrtds.

Ik kmkptk`fhfmkmb pdr rbcuhkebitkãçd gdhbgtfvk pbreftb-sb khkrckebitd

mfërfd ktæ =j b md sbekikh ktæ <>j, pbrådmd mb rblbrbigfk fr ktb ;kid

Ik kmkptk`fhfmkmb fimfvfmukh pbreftb-sb kuebitd mk odrikmk mfërfk ktæ 0j b

mk odrikmk sbekikh ktæ 2>j, pbrådmd mb rblbrbigfk ekx. =ebsbs





D trk`khjkmdr mbsbivdhvb idrekhebitb k suk kgtfvfmkmb kd hkmd mb dutrds, bstk

fitbrmbpbimïigfk fephfgk qub ue rbcfeb mb kmkptk`fhfmkmb s÷ lkãk sbitfmd qukimd

k`rkiok tdmds ds trk`khjkmdrbs mb tkh uifmkmb du bqufpk. ]dmkvfk qukimd sb trktk mb

rbcfeb mb kmkptk`fhfmkmb prbvfstd be gdivbiãçd gdhbgtfvk s÷ bstçd mfrbgtkebitb

k`rkicfmds ds lfhfkmds ids sfimfgktds gditumd d G]P prbvï ebgkifsed md krt. 0><¿,

kmkptk`fhfmkmb crupkh qub lkguhtk k bxtbisçd md rbcfeb ebsed k trk`khjkmdrbs içd

lfhfkmds.

D G] gdiskcrk id krt.0>:¿ ue dutrd fistruebitd mb lhbxf`fhfzkãçd qub æ d `kigd mb

jdrks. ^rbvï-sb kf qub, pdr FPG], pdssk sbr kephfkmd d pbrådmd idrekh mb trk`khjd (ktb

=j/mfk, <>j/sbekik) kgræsgfed qub sbrë gdepbiskmd pdr rbmuãçd bqufvkhbitb kd

tbepd mb trk`khjd, pdr pkckebitd be mfijbfrd du pdr uek gde`fikãçd mb ke`ks

ks edmkhfmkmbs ‗ 0>:/0 b =

]rk`khjd k tbepd pkrgfkh

Æ khcd ekfs md qub uek ldrek mb gditrktd mb trk`khjd k tbepd rbmuzfmd.

tbepd pkrgfkh jdrfzditkh (mfefiufãçd mb jdrks be gkmk mfk)

vbrtfgkh (mfefiufãçd pdr mfks mk sbekik)

gåghfgd (khcueks sbekiks du ebsbs pdr kid).

Jdob tbe vfimd k sbr prbstkmk kd trk`khjd pkrgfkh uek ktbiãçd bspbgfkh id sbitfmd

md rbspbgtfvd bståeuhd gded dpdrtuifmkmb mb beprbcd, gded edmkhfmkmb mb

gdibxçd gde dutrds vkhdrbs sdgfkfs. ^bhd hkmd mds trk`khjkmdrbs? bspbgfkfs

qukhflfgkãòbs mb gbrtd tfpd mb trk`khjd qub içd bxfcbe trk`khjd k tbepd fitbfrd,

guhtd md tbepd hfvrb gded ldrek mb qukhfmkmb mb vfmk b gdigfhfkãçd mb

trk`khjd/vfmk lkefhfkr.

Mk `kimk pktrdikh? mflfguhmkmbs hbckfs bspbgålfgks gdhdgkmks pbhk rfcfmbz mb gbrtks

idreks, bxfcïigfk mb vdhuebs mb trk`khjd qub içd oustflfgke k utfhfzkãçd phbik mk

odrikmk mb trk`khjd mb uek pbssdk.

K ÷ptfgk gdeuiftërfk rbpdrtk d gditrktd k tbepd pkrgfkh k uek pdssf`fhfmkmb k`brtk î

lhbxf`fhfmkmb mb beprbcd. Bstb beprbcd gdhdgk tke`æe qubstòbs mb bstk`fhfmkmb md

beprbcd b fimfgkmdrbs sdgfkfs pdfs bstë bspbgfkhebitb hfckmd kd sbxd lbefifid d qub

grfk rbsbrvks id qub gdigbrib î gdepktf`fhfzkãçd gde d prfigåpfd mk fcukhmkmb.

D rbcfeb md G÷mfcd kssbitk ik fmbfk mb vdhuitkrfbmkmb mk dpãçd pbhd rbcfeb mb

trk`khjd k tbepd pkrgfkh, fepbmfimd-sb qub ks gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks hfeftbe k

gbhb`rkãçd mb kgdrmds pkrk k prbstkãçd mb trk`khjd k tbepd pkrgfkh (krt. ;2;¿).





]ke`æe lkz pkrtb mbstk fmbfk mb lkgfhftkãçd k gdiskcrkãçd hbckh mb ue prfigåpfd mb

rbvbrsf`fhfmkmb (;22). Ibssk ebsek hfijk mb içd mfsgrfefikãçd, d G÷mfcd gdistr÷f d

rbcfeb kphfgëvbh kd trk`khjd k tbepd pkrgfkh k pkrtfr mks fmbfks mb fcukhmkmb mb

trktkebitd gde d trk`khjd k tbepd gdephbtd be sftukãçd gdepkrëvbh.

Mflågbfs prd`hbeks ouråmfgds sb gdhdgke hdcd k iåvbh mb mblfifãçd md tbepd pkrgfkh d

qub dgdrrb, sd`rbtumd id phkid mb kpdfd md Bstkmd. D GP, id bitkitd, mblfib gded

trk`khjd k tbepd pkrgfkh tdmd kqubhb be qub sb kgdrmb ue pbrådmd idrekh mb

trk`khjd sbekikh filbrfdr kd prktfgkmd pkrk d trk`khjd k tbepd gdephbtd be

sftukãçd gdepkrëvbh (krt. ;2>/;¿).

]rk`khjd Fitbreftbitb (;23 b ;<>)

^breftb-sb k gbhb`rkãçd mb G]‖s be qub sb sugbmbe pbrådmds mb kgtfvfmkmb, murkitb

ds qukfs d trk`khjkmdr pbrgb`b k suk rbtrfùfãçd, ids tbreds usukfs, b pbrådmds mb

fikgtfvfmkmb, ids qukfs d beprbckmdr tbrë mb pkckr kd trk`khjkmdr uek

gdepbiskãçd (vkhdr su`stkigfkhebitb filbrfdr kd mk rbtrfùfãkd) b be qub bstb

pdmbrë ebsed bxbrgbr dutrk kgtfvfmkmb ds pbrådmds mb kgtfvfmkmb mbvbe

gdrrbspdimbr k pbhd ebids <ebsbs k tbepd gdephbtd, pdr kid, b fitbcrkr ue pbrfdmd

mb murkãçd içd filbrfdr k =ebsbs gdisbgutfvds.

^dmbe sbr gbhb`rkmds be beprbsks qub bxbrãk kgtfvfmkmb gde mbsgditfiufmkmb du

fitbisfmkmb vkrfëvbh içd sbimd kmefssåvbh k kpdsfãçd mb ue tbred rbsdhutfvd du k

gde`fikãçd gde d rbcfeb md trk`khjd tbepdrërfd (;23/0). Bxfcb-sb k rbmuãçd md gt

k bsgrftd b k fimfgkãçd md i¿kiukh mb jdrks mb trk`khjd

\ ‗ Pbtrfùfãçd? idãòbs cbrkfs

K rbtrfùfãçd gdilfcurk k d`rfckãçd prfigfpkh k gkrcd mk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk,

surcfimd gded gditrkprbstkãçd md trk`khjd.

Æ ue bhbebitd bssbigfkh md gditrktd mb trk`khjd, d qub fephfgk k bxghusçd md

rbspbgtfvd rbcfeb ouråmfgd mks ldreks mb trk`khjd crktuftd. B gded ik suk

gdilfcurkãçd ouråmfgk, bivdhvb uek prbstkãçd mb `bis, pkrtb sbeprb be mfijbfrd,

kfimk qub pdsske bxfstfr prbstkãòbs içd pbguifërfks mbstfikmks k ibgbssfmkmbs

pbssdkfs (krt. 026¾), lfgke tke`æe mb ldrk md Mfrbftd md trk`khjd ks trdgks mb sbrvfãds.





Lkgtdrbs qub gdimfgfdike k mbtbrefikãçd mk rbtrfùfãçd

^krk khæe mb k rbtrfùfãçd sbr lfxkmk be luiãçd md tbepd gded ebmfmk qukitftktfvk

mk prbstkãçd Qkrt. 26.¾, ;, k) , mk Gdist.U jë trïs kspbgtds k gdisfmbrkr ik rbtrfùfãçd?

;. Pbtrfùfãçd be luiãçd gktbcdrfk ks gktbcdrfks gdrrbspdimbe î kgtfvfmkmb

du luiãçd gded gdiouitd mb tkrblks mb qub d trk`khjkmdr bstk gdigrbrtkebitb

bigkrrbcub (gktbcdrfk rbkh). Fitbrbssk ks tkrblks qub gdistftube d gditbÿmd md pdstd

mb trk`khjd qub dgupk? sbimd rbhbvkitb d kspbgtd dòbgtfvd b d hfckmd î

prbpkrkãçd prdlfssfdikh b kd iåvbh mb rbspdisk`fhfmkmb. K gktbcdrfzkãçd gdrrbspdimb

k uek kvkhfkãçd mb luiãòbs be qub bstks sçd jfbrkrqufgkebitb dòbgtfvks (tkrblks

+/- mflågbfs) b suòbgtfvkebitb (jk`fhftkãòbs b bxpbrfbigfk prdlfssfdikh), tbimd be

ktbiãçd k kutdidefk du iåvbh mb rbspdisk`fhfmkmb.

0. Pbtrfùfãçd be luiãçd mks gfrguitkigfks fimfvfmukfs? rbtrfùfãçd lfxkmk

fimfvfmukhebitb, ids gksds be qub bhk bstk bspbgfkhebitb mblfifmk id rbspbgtfvd

gditrktd fimfvfmukh du ids gksds be qub bhk æ mblfifmk gdigrbtkebitb be luiãçd md

ebhjdr du pfdr mbsbepbijd rbgdepbisk md eærftd b md sugbssd fimfvfmukfs b

gdibxfdikr ks rbtrfùfãòbs gde ds rbsuhtkmds d`tfmds pbhd rbspbgtfvd bstk`bhbgfebitd.

7. Pbtrfùfãçd iks beprbsks gdistftuf ue gkrkgtbr bvdhutfvd, mbvbimd

gdrrbspdimbr ks bxpbgtktfvks mb ebhjdrkebitd prdcrbssfvd mk sftukãçd b mk gkrrbfrk

qub gkmk trk`khjkmdr tbe rbtrfùfãçd be luiãçd mk bvdhuãçd ik beprbsk (p. bx.,

mfuturifmkmbs, præefds mb kitfcufmkmb).

Gdigbpãçd prdmutfvåstfgk? Ds beprbckmdrbs prbtbimbe idrekhebitb hfckr k

rbtrfùfãçd kd mbsbepbijd fimfvfmukh b î prdspbrfmkmb chd`kh mk beprbsk.

Gdigbpãçd sdgfkh? ds sfimfgktds prbtbimbe hfckr k rbtrfùfãçd î ekiutbiãçd du

kuebitd md pdmbr mb gdeprk, î bhbvkãçd mds skhërfds ekfs `kfxds b, ebsed qukimd

kgbftke kspbgtds prdmutfvåstfgds, hutke pkrk qub bhbs sboke kvkhfkmds mb edmd

dòbgtfvd.

Fitbrvbiãçd md Bstkmd, ds skhërfds eåifeds? Ds skhërfds içd sçd kpbiks ue mkmd md

ebrgkmd mb trk`khjd, ibe uek luiãçd mks pdhåtfgks mks beprbsks, pdmbimd ibhbs

fitbrlbrfr mfrbgtkebitb d Bstkmd, qubr ktrkvæs mk suk fitbrvbiãçd ids FPG]'s qubr

sd`rbtumd pbhk lfxkãçd mb skhërfds eåifeds.

Idãçd? kqubhbs qub kd iåvbh ikgfdikh b fitbrgktbcdrfkh (fstd æ, vëhfmds pkrk tdmks ks





gktbcdrfks prdlfssfdikfs) sçd lfxkmds be drmbe k sktfslkzbr ks ibgbssfmkmbs mb

su`sfstïigfk mds trk`khjkmdrbs b qub, pdrtkitd, sb gdisfmbrke cbrkhebitb gded

eåifed, rbhktfvkebitb kd qukh içd pdmb sbr bstk`bhbgfmk ourfmfgkebitb rbeuibrkãçd

ekfs `kfxk. H÷cfgk? gd`brturk mks ibgbssfmkmbs vftkfs mb su`sfstïigfk.

K Gdistftufãçd mbtbrefik qub figue`b kd Bstkmd bstk`bhbgbr b kgtukhfzkr d skhërfd

eåifed ikgfdikh, «tbimd be gditk, bitrb dutrds lkgtdrbs, ks ibgbssfmkmbs mds

trk`khjkmdrbs, d kuebitd md gustd mb vfmk, d iåvbh mb mbsbivdhvfebitd mks ldrãks

prdmutfvks, ks bxfcïigfks mb bstk`fhfmkmb bgdi÷efgk b lfikigbfrk b k kgueuhkãçd

pkrk d mbsbivdhvfebitd± Qkrt. 26.¾, 0, k)U.

Pbcfeb (krts. 037¿ k 032¿)

Bstks idreks lfxke ue sfstbek mb skhërfd ikgfdikh (fstd æ, kphfgëvbh k tdmd d tbrrft÷rfd)

b ckrkitfmd, ids tbreds mk pr÷prfk hbf (krt. 037.¾ ), gded rbtrfùfãçd eåifek ebiskh

ckrkitfmk, içd pdmbimd ks gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks du fimfvfmukfs bstk`bhbgbr

editkitbs filbrfdrbs1

^rbmfspòbe-sb skiãòbs pkrk ks bitfmkmbs beprbckmdrks qub içd pkcube ds skhërfds

eåifeds (gditrk-drmbikãçd euftd crkvb ‗ krt. 037.¾, 7 )1

Mbsmb 0>>= qub ds skhërfds eåifeds sçd tdtkhebitb fitbrprdlfssfdikfs, oë qub içd

mbfxke mb ldrk ibijue sbgtdr prdlfssfdikh du kgtfvfmkmb bgdi÷efgk1

Ds skhërfds pdmbrçd sbr filbrfdrbs ids gksds mds trk`khjkmdrbs be ldrekãçd b

trk`khjkmdrbs gde gkpkgfmkmb mb trk`khjd rbmuzfmk (krt. 032.¾)1

K hbf lfxk ue skhërfd ebiskh `ësfgd (krt. 03=.¾ =) b gde bxprbssçd prblbrbitbebitb

pbguifërfk.

Pbtrfùfãçd be Wbitfmd Ouråmfgd

Idãçd? «Gdisfmbrk-sb rbtrfùfãçd k prbstkãçd k qub, ids tbreds md gditrktd, mks

idreks qub d rbcbe du mds usds, d trk`khjkmdr tbe mfrbftd be gditrkpkrtfmk md sbu

trk`khjd± (krt. 02:.¾, ;), prbsuefimd- sb «ktæ prdvk be gditrërfd ... gdistftufr rbtrfùfãçd

qukhqubr prbstkãçd md beprbckmdr kd trk`khjkmdr± (krt. 02:.¾, 7). Id i.¿ 0 md krt.

027.¾ sb bsghkrbgb qub k rbtrfùfãçd gdeprbbimb k rbeuibrkãçd mb `ksb b «dutrks

prbstkãòbs rbcuhkrbs b pbrf÷mfgks lbftks, mfrbgtk du fimfrbgtkebitb, be mfijbfrd du bebspægfb±.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik <>

Bhbebitds bssbigfkfs mk idãçd

^rbstkãòbs rbcuhkrbs b pbrf÷mfgks ‗ ^dmbrbeds bitbimbr qub k hbf, gde k

bxprbssçd «rbcuhkr±, sb rblbrfu k uek rbeuibrkãçd içd kr`ftrërfk eks qub

sbcub uek rbcrk pbrekibitb, sbimd, pdrtkitd, gdistkitb. ^dr dutrd hkmd,

bxfcfimd ue gkrëgtbr «pbrf÷mfgd±, k hbf gdisfmbrk qub bhk mbvb sbr rbhktfvk k

pbrådmds gbrtds id tbepd, mb edmd k fitbcrkr-sb ik pbrfdmfgfmkmb b ik

rbpbtïigfk pr÷prfk mks rbhkãòbs gditrktukfs mb trk`khjd b iks ibgbssfmkmbs

rbgåprdgks mds mdfs gditrkbitbs. Ks fmbfks mb rbcuhkrfmkmb b pbrfdmfgfmkmb

bstçd tke`æe fispfrkmks ik ibgbssfmkmb mb gkhguhkr uek rbtrfùfãçd-tfpd,

chd`kh b k`strkgtk, drmfiërfk, mb gkrëgtbr idrekh1

Be mfijbfrd du be bspægfb ‗ K rbtrfùfãçd gdistk mb ue gdiouitd mb vkhdrbspktrfedifkfs, içd gdistftube rbtrfùfãçd qukfsqubr dutrks ktrfùfãòbs pktrdikfs

mb drmbe içd pktrfedifkh, pdr euftd rbhbvkitbs qub sboke (pdr bx., ktrfùfãçd

mb ue ck`fibtb mb trk`khjd fimfvfmukh)1

K qub d trk`khjkmdr tbe mfrbftd pdr tåtuhd gditrktukh b idrektfvd b qub,

pdrtkitd, gdrrbspdimb k ue mbvbr mk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk. Bxghube-sb,

kssfe, ks crktflfgkãòbs b hf`brkhfmkmbs bxtrkdrmfiërfks. ]rktk-sb mb ue mfrbftd

mfrfcfmd gditrk d beprbckmdr, d qub lkz bxghufr tke`æe md gdigbftd mbrbtrfùfãçd ks fepdrtàigfks ktrfùåmks pdr tbrgbfrds (pdr bx., ks «cdrobtks±)1

Gded gditrkpkrtfmk md sbu trk`khjd - Æ d trk`khjd prbstkmd k gkusk

mbtbrefikitb mk rbtrfùfãçd, sbimd ks muks prbstkãòbs mb gkrëgtbr gd-

rbspbgtfvd b sfikhkceëtfgd? rbtrfùf-sb qube trk`khjk, trk`khjk-sb pdrqub sb æ

rbtrfùåmd (pdr fssd sb bxghube gbrtks ktrfùfãòbs qub içd tïe gkusk id sbrvfãd

prbstkmd bx. Fimbeifzkãòbs).

Edmkhfmkmbs mb rbtrfùfãçd ‗ krt. 0<;.¾

K rbtrfùfãçd gbrtk æ kqubhk qub sb gkhguhk kpbiks be luiãçd md tbepd mb

trk`khjd ‗ i¿ 01

K rbtrfùfãçd vkrfëvbh mblfib-sb pdr bxghusçd mb pkrtbs, gded kqubhk qub æ

gkhguhkmk be luiãçd mb dutrds lkgtdrbs (pdr bx., mb kgdrmd gde d rbimfebitd

md trk`khjd du gde d iÿebrd mb pbãks prdmuzfmks)1

K rbtrfùfãçd efstk æ k gdistftuåmk «pdr uek pkrtb gbrtk b dutrk vkrfëvbh± (i¿ ;).




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik <;

Bstruturk mk rbtrfùfãçd

K rbtrfùfãçd æ gkhguhkmk be luiãçd mb uek rbtrfùfãçd `ksb b mb prbstkãòbs

gdephbebitkrbs du kgbss÷rfks.

rbtrfùfãçd `ksb (0<0/0 k) tbe ue gkrëgtbr gbrtd (mblfifmd be luiãçd md

tbepd) b æ be prfigåpfd fimbpbimbitb mds kgfmbitbs mk vfmk md gditrktd b

mds sbus bspbgfkfs gdimfgfdikhfseds. Gdistftuf ikturkhebitb k rbeuibrkãçd

lfxkmk ik tk`bhk mks gdivbiãòbs gdhbgtfvks du mds rbcuhkebitds mk beprbsk,

ik `ksb mb ue jdrërfd idrekh, pkrk uek gbrtk gktbcdrfk prdlfssfdikh1

^biskeds qub içd tïe kutdidefk b sb fitbcrke ik rbeuibrkãçd mb `ksb tdmds ds

kuebitds qub gdrrbspdimbe î suk sfephbs kgtukhfzkãçd - 0<0.¾, 0, k)1

Ks prbstkãòbs gdephbebitkrbs bstçd hfckmks k gditficïigfks bspbgfkfs mk

prbstkãçd md trk`khjd (pbidsfmkmb, pbrfcd) kd rbimfebitd, eærftd b

prdmutfvfmkmb du ebsed k gbrtks sftukãòbs pbssdkfs mds trk`khjkmdrbs

(kitfcufmkmb, mfuturifmkmbs). Wçd lfxkmks euftks vbzbs gde rbgursd k uek

pbrgbitkcbe sd`rb k rbtrfùfãçd `ksb, gkhguhkimd-sb, pdfs, be luiãçd md

tbepd (sbimd gbrtks). Dutrks vbzbs içd tïe gkrëgtbr pbrgbitukh du sçd

ebsed vkrfëvbfs (krt. 0<0¿, i¿;) .

Wu`såmfd mb lærfks ‗ gdistftuf uek ktrfùfãçd pktrdikh qub bstë hfckmk î pr÷prfk

gdigbssçd mb lærfks rbeuibrkmks, fstd æ, kd mfrbftd md trk`khjkmdr mb kiukhebitb

içd trk`khjkr b hf`brtkr-sb mks d`rfckãòbs mb sbrvfãd, gditfiukimd k sbr rbtrfùåmd. D

krt. 0<=.¾, 0 bstk`bhbgb bxkgtkebitb qub ds trk`khjkmdrbs tïe mfrbftd, pkrk khæe mk

rbtrfùfãçd qub rbgb`brfke sb bstfvbssbe id sbrvfãd blbgtfvd, k ue su`såmfd

«gdeprbbimbimd k rbtrfùfãçd `ksb b dutrks prbstkãòbs rbtrfùtfvks qub sboke

gditrkpkrtfmk md edmd bspbgålfgd mk bxbguãçd md trk`khjd±.

Wu`såmfd mb iktkh ‗ kgtukhebitb æ d`rfckt÷rfd - krt. 0<7.¾, bstk`bhbgb qub «d

trk`khjkmdr tbe mfrbftd k su`såmfd mb Iktkh mb vkhdr fcukh k ue eïs mb rbtrfùfãçd.

[ukimd d trk`khjd içd ldr bxbgutkmd murkitb tdmd d kid gfvfh be gkusk d vkhdr md

su`såmfd sbrë prdpdrgfdikh kd tbepd mb sbrvfãd prbstkmd. K hbf dptdu pdr ue sfstbek

be qub d su`såmfd mb Iktkh æ gdisfmbrkmd gded ue skhërfd mflbrfmd, qub sb vkf

keditdkimd ebiskhebitb k lkvdr md trk`khjkmdr.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik <0

^rd`hbek? Wk`br sb uek mbtbrefikmk prbstkãçd qub d trk`khjkmdr rbgb`b æ du içd

gdisfmbrkmk ourfmfgkebitb gded lkzbimd pkrtb mk rbtrfùfãçd.

Bstk qukhflfgkãçd tbe k ekfdr fepdrtàigfk prëtfgk pdrqub k rbtrfùfãçd bstë suobftk k

rbcrks qub hjb kssbcurke uek prdtbgãçd bspbgfkh ( hbe`rb-sb qub k rbtrfùfãçd içd

pdmb, be rbcrk, sbr mfefiuåmk) b tke`æe pdrqub î rbtrfùfãçd sçd kssdgfkmds gbrtds

mfrbftds guok gdilfcurkãçd be gdigrbtd mbpbimb md editkitb mk rbtrfùfãçd

kulbrfmk pbhd trk`khjkmdr. ^dr fssd jë qub tbr d ekfdr gufmkmd gde uek pdhåtfgk

pktrdikh mb rbhkãòbs mb trk`khjd kssbitb id mfslkrgb mb ktrfùfãòbs rbeuibrkt÷rfks

gde dutrd tåtuhd du gde mfvbrsd fiv÷hugrd. ^dr dutrd hkmd, b be gditrkpkrtfmk, jë k

gdisfmbrkr qub k prbsuiãçd md krt. 02:.¾, 7, pdmb lkzbr suèbtbr kd rbcfeb mk

rbtrfùfãçd gbrtks ktrfùfãòbs qub be vbrmkmb ibhk içd sb fitbcrke. Gksds ekfs

gditrdvbrtfmds?

Pbeuibrkãçd pdr trk`khjd suphbebitkr (krt. 0<:.¾)? kpbiks sb mbvb bitbimbr

qub k rbeuibrkãçd md trk`khjd suphbebitkr sb fitbcrk ik rbtrfùfãçd qukimd,

pbhk pbrekiïigfk du rbcuhkrfmkmb gde qub æ prbstkmd, du kfimk pbhd sbu

vdhueb, pbsk sfciflfgktfvkebitb id editkitb rbgb`fmd pbhd trk`khjkmdr, be

tbreds mb bhb pdmbr gditkr gde tkh rbeuibrkãçd1

Koumks mb gustd b dutrds k`dids Qkrt. 0<>.¾, ;, k)U? k hbf içd ks gdisfmbrk

rbtrfùfãòbs uek vbz qub içd jë ik suk pbrgbpãçd qukhqubr

gdrrbspbgtfvfmkmb rbhktfvk kd trk`khjd, pdfs trktk-sb mb qukitfks qub içd vfske

pkckr d trk`khjd, qub içd sçd gditrkpkrtfmk md sbrvfãd prbstkmd. K gkusk

ouråmfgk mk ktrfùfãçd bstë ik fimbeifzkãçd du rbbe`dhsd mks mbspbsks qub

ldrke fifgfkhebitb supdrtkmks pbhd trk`khjkmdr, eks qub gdepbtbe kd

beprbckmdr gustbkr mkmd qub ldrke edtfvkmks pdr rkzòbs rbhkgfdikmks gde

d sbrvfãd prbstkmd. Bstks rbcrks tke`æe sb kphfgke îs mbspbsks mb

rbprbsbitkãçd. ]ke`æe içd sbrçd rbtrfùfãòbs ks fepdrtàigfks bitrbcubs pbhk

bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk pkrk gustbkr ks mbspbsks mb trkislbrïigfk mb hdgkh mb

trk`khjd (krt. 7;2.¾, 2)1

K pkrtb lfikh md krt. 0<>.¾, ;, k) bxgbptuk gbrtks sftukãòbs bspbgfkfs. Ik

vbrmkmb, be gbrtks kgtfvfmkmbs ks mbshdgkãòbs md trk`khjkmdr sçd gdistkitbs b

ds k`dids rbspbgtfvds bstçd bstruturkmds be tbreds mb gd`rfr gde hkrcubzk ks

rbspbgtfvks mbspbsks. Drk, ibssb gksd, b ik ebmfmk be qub bxgbmbe ks

mbspbsks idrekfs, tkfs k`dids pdmbe lkzbr pkrtb mk rbtrfùfãçd (bx. «su`såmfds mbgdeùståvbh±)1





Crktflfgkãòbs Qkrt. 0<;.¾, ;, `)U. Jë gbrtks ktrfùfãòbs mk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk

qub tbimd be`drk gkusk id gditrktd mb trk`khjd b ids sbrvfãds prbstkmds içd

sçd mbvfmks b tïe ue gkrëgtbr mb rbgdepbisk vdhuitërfk du præefd pbhds

`dis sbrvfãds. D beprbckmdr içd mbsbok vfiguhkr-sb î suk pbrgbpãçd b pbhd

sbu gkrëgtbr uifhktbrkh b içd mbvfmd, bhks içd sb pdmbe gdisfmbrkr gded tkh.

Eks, kd gditrërfd mbstks crktflfgkãòbs bxtrkdrmfiërfks, jë dutrks qub sb mbvbe

bitbimbr gded fitbcrkimd k rbtrfùfãçd? sçd kqubhks qub sçd mbvfmks pdr

ldrãk md gditrktd du mks idreks qub d rbcbe, kfimk qub k suk pbrgbpãçd

bstbok gdimfgfdikmk k `dis sbrvfãds, b tke`æe kqubhks qub, pbhk suk

fepdrtàigfk b rbcuhkrfmkmb, mbvke gdisfmbrkr-sb bhbebitd fitbcrkitb mk

rbtrfùfãçd (krt. 0<;.¾, 7) içd sb trktk mb prbstkãòbs mb gkrkgtbr crktuftd,

eks kitbs mb prbstkãòbs mbvfmks gded gditrkpkrtfmk

Figbitfvds du ^ræefds mb Edtfvkãçd (0<>/; g)? prbstkãòbs rbsuhtkitbs mb lkgtds

rbhkgfdikmds gde d mbsbepbijd du eærftd prdlfssfdikh md trk`khjkmdr, `be

gded k kssfmufmkmb. Mbstfike-sb k bstfeuhkr ds trk`khjkmdrbs k uek

bxbguãçd pkrtfguhkrebitb fitbrbsskmk b prdmutfvk mk suk prbstkãçd. Bstbs

præefds, be rbcrk, içd mbpbimbe mds rbsuhtkmds mk beprbsk (mflbrbitbebitb

md qub sugbmb gde ks crktflfgkãòbs). Içd mbvbe sbr gdisfmbrkmds gded

rbtrfùfãçd pdrqub bivdhvbe ue bigdrkokebitd k uek qukhfmkmb

pkrtfguhkrebitb rbhbvbitb b qub bxfcb ue bsldrãd suphbebitkr, qub k pr÷prfk

fitbcrkãçd ik rbtrfùfãçd pdmbrfk mbstrufr.

^ræefds kitbgfpkmkebitb ckrkitfmds ‗ bxbgbpãkd sbimd

gdisfmbrkmds gded rbtrfùfãçd fitbrprbtkmk mb ldrek gufmkmdsk oë

qub ibe k rbtrfùfãçd bstk kitbgfpkmkebitb ckrkitfmk b ue prbefd,

ik ebmfmk be qub figbitfvk, iuigk pdmb bstkr kitbgfpkmkebitb

ckrkitfmd. ]kh bitbimfebitd bivdhvbrfk qub?

Iks beprbsks edmbriks prktfgkebitb tdmds ds præefds

bstfvbssbe fitbcrkmds ik rbtrfùfãçd d qub içd bstkrfk k

gdimfzbr gde d gkrkgtbr cbiærfgd md krt. 0<>/; `)

@biblfgfkrfk d beprbckmdr qukimd rbsbrvk, ebsed sbe

qukhqubr oustflfgkãçd, d sbu hfvrb khvbmrfd b mfsgrfgfdikrfbmkmb, b

prboumfgk-hd-fk qukimd rbcuhkebitk d prbefd, d mblfib b rbgusk

d kr`åtrfd.

Wb ldssb ktrfùåmd d gkrkgtbr rbtrfùtfvd k bstbs præefds bhbs

pbrmbrfke d gkrkgtbr mb bstfeuhd ‗ iuhk blfgëgfk prktfgk




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik <=

Cdrobtks ‗ içd pdmbe sbr gdisfmbrkmks gded rbtrfùfãçd (sçd mbvfmks pdr

tbrgbfrds b içd pbhd beprbckmdr)1

pkrtfgfpkãçd ids hugrds Qkrt. 0<>.¾, ;, m)U. K hbf æ bxprbssk be gdisfmbrkr qub

bssk pkrtfgfpkãçd içd gdrrbspdimb k rbtrfùfãçd, mbsmb qub kd trk`khjkmdr

bstbok kssbcurkmd pbhd gditrktd uek rbtrfùfãçd kmbqukmk kd sbu trk`khjd.

Mflbrbitbebitb, pkrbgb gdisfmbrk-sb rbtrfùfãçd ks prbstkãòbs rbhkgfdikmks

gde d rbsuhtkmd d`tfmd pbhk beprbsk, qukimd rbvfstke gkrëgtbr bstëvbh Qkrt.

0<>.¾, 7, `)U1

Gdefssòbs du pbrgbitkcbis ‗ rblbrbe-sb k ibc÷gfds rbkhfzkmds, rbprbsbitkimd

uek lrkgãçd md gustd mbssbs ebseds ibc÷gfds. ^drqub sb içd gdiluimbe

gde k pkrtfgfpkãçd ids hugrds, kitbs rbprbsbitkimd bigkrcds du mbspbsks

gde d pbssdkh gde filhuïigfk id kpurkebitd mds hugrds håqufmds, ks gdefssòbs

sbrçd cbrkhebitb bigkrkmks gded fitbcrkimd k rbtrfùfãçd, gdistftufimd uek

pkrtb vkrfëvbh mk ebsek. ]rktke-sb, id luimd, mb uek ldrek mb rbtrfùfr d

trk`khjd be luiãçd md mbsbepbijd1

Mfuturifmkmbs - «prbstkãçd mb ikturbzk rbtrfùtfvk b gde vbigfebitd

pbrf÷mfgd, k qub d trk`khjkmdr tbijk mfrbftd gde luimkebitd ik

kitfcufmkmb±. Bstks prbstkãòbs sçd fighuåmks ik `ksb mb gëhguhd mksprbstkãòbs gdephbebitkrbs (krt. 0<0.¾, ;) b mb mfvbrsks gdepbiskãòbs

kssdgfkmks î gbsskãçd md gditrktd mb trk`khjd1

Gdepbiskãçd pdr lkhjks/pbidsfmkmb/pbrfcdsfmkmb - Be euftds gksds, sçd

ktrfùåmds kds trk`khjkmdrbs mfvbrsds qukitftktfvds, k tåtuhd içd rbtrfùtfvd . Re

mds bxbephds ekfs lrfskitbs æ d md k`did pkrk lkhjks, gdigbmfmd k

gd`rkmdrbs b gkfxks, oë qub, gded mfzbe ds idssds trfùikfs, «tkh k`did içd

tbe gkrëgtbr rbeuibrkt÷rfd md trk`khjd prbstkmd, eks fimbeifzkt÷rfd md rfsgdk qub ik suk kgtfvfmkmb kqubhbs beprbckmds bstçd suobftds±1

Mflbrbitb æ d biqukmrkebitd mks prbstkãòbs gdephbebitkrbs qub vfske rbeuibrkr

k bspbgfkh qukhfmkmb md trk`khjd prbstkmd be gdimfãòbs mb ekfdr pbidsfmkmb du

pbrfcdsfmkmb, gded sboke ds su`såmfds mb rfsgd ktrfùåmds kds trk`khjkmdrbs klbgtds k

sbrvfãds mb trkispdrtb mb vkhdrbs du mb sbcurkiãk, du îqubhbs qub trk`khjke be

gdimfãòbs qub bivdhvbe bspbgfkfs pbrfcds pkrk k skÿmb du fitbcrfmkmb låsfgk. Wçd

prbstkãòbs rbtrfùtfvks, kfimk qub k suk d`tbiãçd mbpbimk mk ekiutbiãçd mk

sftukãçd mb pbidsfmkmb du pbrfcdsfmkmb1





Mbtbrefikãçd b gëhguhd mk rbtrfùfãçd. Pbtrfùfãçd be gdigrbtd b rbtrfùfãçd

edmuhkr

[ukh k rbtrfùfãçd gdigrbtkebitb mbvfmk, qukimd bhk içd bstfvbr lfxkmk id G]4

Pbtrfùfãçd be Gdigrbtd qukitftktfvd mbvfmd k ue trk`khjkmdr qub prbstdu sbrvfãd

iue mkmd eïs, gde bstk du kqubhk kssfmufmkmb b lkhtks, oustflfgkmks du içd, gde k

prdmutfvfmkmb kpurkmk ibstks b ikqubhks gfrguistkigfks.

Pbtrfùfãçd be K`strkgtd editkitb qub d trk`khjkmdr ckijk iue qukhqubr eïs b

pdrtkitd gde ue kpurkebitd eæmfd, pkmrdifzkmd, qub sb tdrik ibgbssërfd lkzbr

pkrk hjb mblfifr mfrbftds id phkid md G]. Ik ekfdr pkrtb mds gksds, ds tbreds pkrk d

gkhguhd mk rbtrfùfãçd bstkd lfxkmds ids gditrktds, eks pdmb kgditbgbr ks pkrtbs içd

mbtbrefikrbe k rbtrfùfãçd id gditrktd. Ibstb gksd, k rbtrfùfãçd pdmb rbsuhtkr

mfrbgtk du fimfrbgtkebitb mks idreks kphfgëvbfs b ibssk ÿhtfek jfp÷tbsb bitbimbr-sb

gded gditrktukh k rbeuibrkãçd idrektfvkebitb bstk`bhbgfmk. Wb k rbtrfùfãçd içd

bstfvbr lfxkmk b içd rbsuhtkr mb idreks kphfgëvbfs kd gditrktd mb trk`khjd (pdr bx.,

pdrqub içd bxfstb qukhqubr gdivbiãçd gdhbgtfvk kphfgëvbh ik beprbsk be gkusk),

pdmbrë sbr lfxkmk pbhd trfùikh (krt. 030.¾, ;).

Idutrds gksds, ds tbreds be qub æ lfxkmk k rbtrfùfãçd bstçd sulfgfbitbebitb

fimfgkmds id gditrktd.

Iue b idutrd gksd, bigditrked-ids be lkgb mb ebrks fimfgkãòbs pkrk k lfxkãçd be

gdigrbtd, sbimd mflågfh k gdephbtk fmbitflfgkãçd mk rbtrfùfãçd, oë qub bxfstbe

iuebrdsks ktrfùfãòbs gdephbebitkrbs mb gdephfgkmd gëhguhd.

K mflfguhmkmb rbsfmb id lkgtd mb ks prbstkãòbs rbtrfùtfvks sbrbe kgjkmks ueks be

luiãçd mks dutrks. Gde blbftd, ds gdephbebitds rbtrfùtfvds gded pdr bxbephd ks

mfuturifmkmbs, d su`såmfd mb turid, k rbeuibrkãçd pdr trk`khjd suphbebitkr, btg., sçd

gkhguhkmds gde `ksb be pbrgbitkcbis mb uek «rbtrfùfãçd ebiskh± du mb uek

«rbtrfùfãçd mfk± du mb uek «rbtrfùfãçd jdrk±, guod vkhdr içd æ lëgfh mb gkhguhkr, tkitd

ekfs qub k hficukcbe mk hbf du md gditrktd æ euftks vbzbs bquåvdgk b pkrbgb

rbpdrtkr-sb k khcd mb mfvbrsd mk rbtrfùfãçd `ksb.

Mbsmb hdcd pdrqub bivdhvbrë uek tbimïigfk pkrk k muphfgkãçd , ik ebmfmk be qub

pkrk gkhguhkr gbrtks ktrfùfãòbs skhkrfkfs ‗ bhks ebsed gdisfmbrkmks gded pkrtb mk

«rbtrfùfãçd± ‗ sb rbgdrrb k uek `ksb tke`æe mblfifmk gded «rbtrfùfãçd±. Kssfe, içd

sb pdmb, pdr bxbephd, gdeputkr d su`såmfd mb turid (du d su`såmfd pdr trk`khjd

idgturid) gde `ksb ik «rbtrfùfãçd± b mbpdfs mfzbr-sb qub bssb ebsed su`såmfd

fitbcrk k «rbtrfùfãçd±.




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik <<

Mb tumd fstd mbgdrrb k gdivbifïigfk mb, id kpurkebitd mds gdephbebitds skhkrfkfs,

sb lkzbr gëhguhds gde rbgursd k uek `ksb qub æ ibgbssërfd kvbrfcukr uek rbtrfùfãçd

mb edmd sbcurd. Bssk `ksb sbrë k rbtrfùfãçd `ksb, kgrbsgfmk mks mfuturifmkmbs,

gded, khfës, bstë jdob bstk`bhbgfmd id krt. 0<0.¾, ;, md G] (bxfstbe bxgbpãòbs pkrk

blbftds mb gbrtds gdephbebitds ‗ tbeds mb rbgdrrbr î prbvfsçd hbckh du gdivbigfdikh

mds ebseds pkrk sb mbsgdrtfikr qukh k gdepdsfãçd b drmbe mb gëhguhds k qub mbvb

prdgbmbr pkrk bigditrkr ds vkhdrbs mds gdephbebitds ‗ bx. 0<=¿ i¿0).

D sbcuimd prd`hbek rbspbftk î ibgbssfmkmb mb mblfifãçd mb uek crkimbzk k qub

gjkekrbeds rbtrfùfãçd be k`strkgtd du rbtrfùfãçd edmuhkr.

K qubstçd surcb pdrqub sb tdek fimfspbisëvbh mblfifr kqufhd k qub k hbf mbsfcik

tke`æe pdr «rbtrfùfãçd± b qub sb rbpdrtk k pbrådmds pkmrçd mb murkãçd mk rbhkãçd

mb trk`khjd (jdrk, mfk du eïs). Pblbrbe-sb euftks vbzbs qukitftktfvds fimbeifzkt÷rfds

mblfifmds pdr ue pbrådmd pkmrçd mb rbtrfùfãçd-tfpd, k qukh, pdrtkitd, æ k`strkgtk. K

rbtrfùfãçd içd pdmb tbr ibssbs gksds ue gkrëgtbr rbkh b gdigrbtkebitb

mbtbrefikmd? trktk-sb mb uek rbtrfùfãçd edmuhkr. Wb k hbf mfssbr qub d trk`khjkmdr

tbe mfrbftd k uek fimbeifzkãçd bqufvkhbitb «î rbtrfùfãçd gdrrbspdimbitb k sbfs

ebsbs± pkrk gkhguhkr d editkitb mk fimbeifzkãçd içd sb tbe mb mbtbrefikr d vkhdr

mk rbtrfùfãçd mbvfmk iue mkmd eïs, eks kitbs ue vkhdr pkmrçd qub luigfdik gded

uifmkmb mb gditk b içd gded k gditrkpkrtfmk md trk`khjd prbstkmd be gbrtd

pbrådmd.

Fitbrbssk, pdrtkitd, mblfifr bssk rbtrfùfãçd-tfpd, edmuhkr, pkmrdifzkmk, tb÷rfgk, be

k`strkgtd rblbråvbh k ue jfpdtætfgd pbrådmd mb murkãçd. D i.¿ 0 md krt. 02:.¾, mfz qub

«k rbtrfùfãçd gdeprbbimb k rbtrfùfãçd `ksb b dutrks ks prbstkãòbs rbcuhkrbs b

pbrf÷mfgks±. Bstk fmbfk mb rbcuhkrfmkmb b mb pbrfdmfgfmkmb içd sbrvb kpbiks pkrk

sk`br sb uek mkmk ktrfùfãçd tbe ikturbzk rbtrfùtfvk b sb d sbu pkckebitd æ

d`rfckt÷rfd1 bhk æ, sd`rbtumd, ue bhbebitd ibgbssërfd pkrk mblfifr sbe mfstdrãçd d qub

æ k rbtrfùfãçd-tfpd du edmuhkr murkitb ue pbrådmd pkmrçd mb tbepd b qub gdistftufebmfmk du `ksb mb gëhguhd mb fiÿebrds mfrbftds gdisfcikmds iks idreks mb trk`khjd.

Oë be rbcrk mbvbe sbr bxghuåmks mbstbs gëhguhds ks rbtrfùfãòbs qub içd tïe gkrëgtbr

tbepdrkh, f. b., ktrfùfãòbs gditåiuks, gded, pdr bxbephd, d cdzd mb gkrrd gde

edtdrfstk, usd mb gkrrd du tbhbe÷vbh mk beprbsk, btg...

Fepdrtk, pdfs, mblfifr pkrk vërfds blbftds bssk rbtrfùfãçd edmuhkr k`strkgtk, b mbsmb

hdcd pkrk kpurkr d editkitb mb gbrtds mfrbftds md trk`khjkmdr qub içd bstçd

gdibxfdikmds gde d blbgtfvd sbrvfãd. ^dr bxbephd, pkrk d gëhguhd mk rbtrfùfãçd

mbvfmk murkitb d pbrådmd mb lærfks.





Bstb tbek prbimb-sb kfimk gde dutrks qubstòbs, tkfs gded k mk mbtbrefikãçd md

vkhdr mk rbtrfùfãçd vkrfëvbh. Wb ebsed k rbtrfùfãçd gbrtk sb edmflfgk be gkmk

gdigrbtd pbrådmd mb tbepd, sbimd pdfs fimfspbisëvbh pkmrdifzë-hk, k qubstçd tbe

kfimk ekfs fepdrtàigfk qukimd bxfstbe rbeuibrkãòbs vkrfëvbfs. Ibssbs gksds, k

rbtrfùfãçd edmuhkr mbstfik-sb tke`æe klfxkr du pkmrdifzkr d qub æ vkrfëvbh.

Kfimk k bstb prdp÷sftd, mbvb rblbrfr-sb qub d lkgtdr tbepd tbe uek rbhbvàigfk

luimkebitkh pkrk blbftds mb pkmrdifzkãçd mk d`rfckãçd rbtrfùtfvk, kssuefimd

bspbgfkh fepdrtàigfk k cbibrkhfzkãçd mk rbcrk md vbigfebitd ebiskh. Ik vbrmkmb, k

gjkekmk ebisukhfzkãçd mk rbtrfùfãçd sbrvb içd s÷ pkrk lfxkr d edebitd be qub d

skhërfd æ mbvfmd , eks tke`æe pkrk pkmrdifzkr k rbtrfùfãçd, d qub sb ldf

prdcrbssfvkebitb klfrekimd ik prëtfgk mkmks ks fepdrtkitbs vkitkcbis prëtfgks qub

prdpdrgfdik.

\F - Pbtrfùfãçd? gueprfebitd (pkckebitd)

Ldreks mb Gueprfebitd

D gueprfebitd mk rbtrfùfãçd mbvb sbr lbftd be mfijbfrd du, pkrgfkhebitb, be

prbstkãòbs mb dutrk ikturbzk? rbtrfùfãòbs be bspægfb (krt. 03<.¾, ;), ks qukfs sb mbvbe

mbstfikr «î sktfslkãçd mb ibgbssfmkmbs pbssdkfs md trk`khjkmdr du mk suk lkeåhfk b

içd hjb pdmb sbr ktrfùåmd vkhdr supbrfdr kd gdrrbitb ik rbcfçd± (krt. 026.¾, ;). Mb

qukhqubr edmd, be rbcrk, pbhd ebids ebtkmb mk rbtrfùfãçd mbvb sbr sktfslbftk be

mfijbfrd (krt. 026.¿, 0), pkrk kssbcurkr kd trk`khjkmdr uek qukitfk hfvrbebitb

mfspdiåvbh b pkrk bstb prdgbmbr k sbu grftærfd î klbgtkãçd mk rbtrfùfãçd îs suks

ibgbssfmkmbs.

Huckr md Gueprfebitd

K rbtrfùfãçd mbvb sbr pkck id huckr dimb d trk`khjkmdr prbstk k suk kgtfvfmkmb,

skhvd sb dutrd ldr kgdrmkmd (krt. 033.¾, ;)? ibstb gksd, d tbepd mbspbimfmd be

rbgb`br k rbtrfùfãçd gdisfmbrk-sb tbepd mb trk`khjd (krt. 033.¾, 0). Kgtukhebitb k

ldrek ekfs cbibrkhfzkmk mb pkckebitd mk rbtrfùfãçd, iks beprbsks, gdisfstb ik

trkislbrïigfk pkrk uek gditk `kigkrfk î drmbe md trk`khjkmdr.

]bepd md Gueprfebitd

K rbtrfùfãçd tbe be vfstk ue gbrtd tbepd, biqukitd ktrfùfãçd gbrtk be qub d

tbepd mbsbepbijk k luiãçd mb uifmkmb mb ebmfmk b kfimk gded ktrfùfãçd

pbrf÷mfgk qub sb vbigb kutdektfgkebitb be mbtbrefikmd edebitd id tbepd ‗

sfciflfgk fstd qub d trk`khjkmdr içd tbe mb bxfcfr d pkckebitd, lfgkimd k bitfmkmb




Ekrfk Huåsk Hd`d ‗ 0>;;/0>;0 ^ëcfik <:

beprbckmdrk d`rfckmk k blbgtuë-hd hdcd qub sb khgkigb k mktk prbvfstk.

K rbcrk æ k mb p÷s-iuebrkãçd, pbhk qukh d trk`khjkmdr s÷ æ pkcd mbpdfs mb

mbsbepbijkmd d trk`khjd murkitb d rbspbgtfvd pbrådmd. D sbitfmd mbstk rbcrk æ d mb

mblbimbr k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk, qub, sb pkckssb kitbgfpkmkebitb, lfgkvk euftd

bxpdstk îs lkhtks md trk`khjkmdr b ktæ kd figueprfebitd tdtkh md gditrktd pdr pkrtb

mbstb, sbimd ds skhërfds kitbgfpkmkebitb pkcds frrbgupbrëvbfs, ik prëtfgk. ^dr dutrd

hkmd, bitbimfk-sb qub, qubr ik drmbe prëtfgk qubr pdrqub k sbu lkvdr luigfdike

mfvbrsds ebgkifseds mb tutbhk, d trk`khjkmdr bstkvk ebids bxpdstd kd

figueprfebitd pktrdikh (ds skhërfds be ktrksd vfbrke prdvkr d gditrërfd).

\FF - ]utbhk mk rbtrfùfãçd

K rbtrfùfãçd æ k ckrkitfk mk su`sfstïigfk md trk`khjkmdr b md sbu kcrbckmd lkefhfkr.

Içd mfsgrfefikãçd b d prfigåpfd mk fcukhmkmb

K Gdistftufãçd Qkrt. 26.¾, ;, k)U klfrek d prfigåpfd mb qub «pkrk trk`khjd fcukh skhërfd

fcukh±, d qub supòb qub ks ebseks qukitfmkmbs b qukhfmkmbs mb trk`khjd mk ebsek

ikturbzk tïe mb sbr rbtrfùåmks mk ebsek ekibfrk, içd mbvbimd jkvbr qukhqubr

mfsgrfefikãçd rbtrfùtfvk bitrb trk`khjkmdrbs qub içd rbsuhtb mk suk gktbcdrfk

prdlfssfdikh, tkrblks bxbgutkmks, rbimfebitd b qukhfmkmb mb bxbguãçd, btg. Æ ghkrd

qub bstb prfigåpfd mb fcukhmkmb tbe mb sbr krtfguhkmd gde k pr÷prfk kutdidefk

gditrktukh b hf`brmkmb mb beprbsk b pdr fssd içd pdmbrbeds gdisfmbrkr gded

vfdhkmdrks mk Gdistftufãçd gbrtks ldreks rbtrfùtfvks qub bsgkpke kds grftærfds kgfek

mblfifmds (pdr bx., rbtrfùfãòbs be luiãçd mk kitfcufmkmb du qub gditbephke

sftukãòbs pbssdkfs, îs vbzbs gde khgkigb sdgfkh kprbgfëvbh).

Krt. 7;¿ G]P ‗ içd mfsgrfefikãçd be luiãçd md sbxd1

Krt. 0=¿ G]P ‗ içd mfsgrfefikãçd be luiãçd mk gfmkmkifk.

Frrbmutf`fhfmkmb mk Pbtrfùfãçd

D krtfcd ;06.¾, ;, m) bstk`bhbgb gded ckrkitfk md trk`khjkmdr k prdf`fãçd mb k

bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk mfefiufr k rbtrfùfãçd, skhvd ids gksds prbvfstds ik hbf b ids

fistruebitds mb rbcuhkebitkãçd gdhbgtfvk (grfsb, prdgbssd mb rbgupbrkãçd mk

beprbsk). D G÷mfcd bhfefidu k pdssf`fhfmkmb mb mfefiufãòbs mb rbtrfùfãçd qub

rbsuhtkssbe mb kgdrmds, mbsmb qub kutdrfzkmks pbhk Kutdrfmkmb pkrk ks Gdimfãòbs

md ]rk`khjd içd æ uek `dk sdhuãçd ids gksds be qub k rbmuãçd mk rbtrfùfãçd

sbok uek ebmfmk khtbriktfvk î fighusçd md trk`khjkmdr be gkusk iue mbspbmfebitd





gdhbgtfvd.

]be-sb bitbimfmd qub k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk bstë kpbiks d`rfckmk k ekitbr

editkitbs eæmfds b içd k ebsek bstruturk mk rbtrfùfãçd.

Ekfs mfsgutåvbh æ d prd`hbek mb sk`br sb gditfiuke k sbr mbvfmks gbrtks ktrfùfãòbs

rbtrfùtfvks ids gksds be qub, pdr kphfgkãçd mb idvds eætdmds mb drckifzkãçd b

gdimfãòbs mb trk`khjd, mbfxkrbe mb tbr kphfgkãçd ds sbus prbssupdstds. Be rbcrk,

bitbimbeds qub d beprbckmdr içd tbrë mb gditfiukr k pkckr tkfs ktrfùfãòbs.

Gdisbrvkãçd mk rbtrfùfãçd ebsed sbe trk`khjd blbgtfvd

Jë gksds be qub, kpbskr mk fibxbguãçd mk prbstkãçd md trk`khjd, k rbspbgtfvk

rbtrfùfãçd gditfiuk k sbr mbvfmk. Bitrb bstbs gksds bigditrkeds, pdr ue hkmd, kssftukãòbs mb suspbisçd, ebsed prdhdickmk, pdr edtfvds rbhkgfdikmds gde k

beprbsk be qub d trk`khjd içd æ prbstkmd eks d skhërfd gditfiuk k sbr pkcd. ^dr

dutrd hkmd, jë tke`æe mfvbrsks sftukãòbs be qub k içd rbkhfzkãçd md trk`khjd æ

mbvfmk k gfrguistàigfks rbspbftkitbs kd trk`khjkmdr eks be qub bstb trk`khjkmdr

gdisbrvk d mfrbftd î rbtrfùfãçd. Æ d qub sugbmb be euftks mks lkhtks oustflfgkmks b

tke`æe iks kusïigfks gde «græmftds mb jdrks± pdr edtfvds sfimfgkfs du bqufpkrkmds.

Pbstk kpbiks fimfgkr qub dutrds gksds mb prdtbgãçd î rbtrfùfãçd bstçd be rbcrbssçd,

oë qub ds bsqubeks mb sbcurkiãk sdgfkh tbimbe k kssbcurkr ue rbimfebitd mb

su`stftufãçd.

Hfeftkãòbs îs ldreks mb bxtfiãçd mk d`rfckãçd mb rbtrfùfãçd

Fepdssf`fhfmkmb mb rbiÿigfk

D trk`khjkmdr içd pdmb rbiuigfkr prbvfkebitb ‗ ebsed pkrgfkhebitb kds græmftds

ckrkitfmds pdr hbf du pdr FPG]. ]be-sb bitbimfmd qub s÷ æ pdssåvbh k rbiÿigfk kp÷s k

bxtfiãçd md våiguhd gditrktukh, sdhuãçd qub khfës tbe sfmd klfrekmk pbhds trfùikfs.

Hfeftkãòbs î gbssçd

Gbssçd gditrktd pbhd qukh d grbmdr trkiseftb k tbrgbfrd, fimbpbimbitbebitb md

gdisbitfebitd md mbvbmdr, k tdtkhfmkmb du uek pkrtb md grbmftd.

D trk`khjkmdr s÷ pdmb gbmbr ue tbrãd mds sbus græmftds rbhktfvds î rbtrfùfãçd Qkrtfcd

0:>.¾ md G] b krtfcd :0=.¾, ;, k), md G. ^rdg. Gfv.U.





Fisusgbptf`fhfmkmb mb gdepbiskãçd

K rbcrk cbrkh æ k mb qub k gdepbiskãçd sb pdmb blbgtukr ktrkvæs mk sfephbs

mbghkrkãçd mb uek mks pkrtbs, eks bstk rbcrk içd sb kphfgk rbhktfvkebitb î

rbtrfùfãçd? k hbf prdå`b k bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk mb gdepbiskr k rbtrfùfãçd be

måvfmk gde qukfsqubr dutrds græmftds qub mbtbijk sd`rb d trk`khjkmdr (krt. 036.¾, ; md

G]P).

^dr dutrd hkmd, ids tbreds md ebsed prbgbftd, içd sçd pbreftfmds tke`æe mbsgditds,

ebsed rbhktfvds k dutrds mæ`ftds md trk`khjkmdr. W÷ sçd bxgbptukmds ds mbsgditds k

lkvdr md Bstkmd, sbcurkiãk sdgfkh du dutrks bitfmkmbs b qub sboke mbtbrefikmds pdr

hbf du pdr sbitbiãk, ks fimbeifzkãòbs mbvfmks pbhd trk`khjkmdr hfqufmkmks pdr

mbgfsçd oumfgfkh, ks skiãòbs pbguifërfks gde ikturbzk mfsgfphfikr b kfimk gbrtds

mbsgditds qub bebrcbe mb lkgfhfmkmbs pktrdikfs. Mb qukhqubr edmd, be rbcrk, ds

mbsgditds içd pdmbe bxgbmbr, id sbu gdiouitd ;/< mk rbtrfùfãçd ‗ i¿ 7 .

Kmfkitkebitds ‗ Içd sb gdiluimb gde k gdepbiskãçd, içd bstkimd pdrtkitd

suobftk îs rbstrfãòbs fimfgkmks, k sftukãçd be qub d trk`khjkmdr vï mbsgditkmd id

skhërfd d vkhdr mds kmfkitkebitds qub d beprbckmdr hjb lbz pdr gditk mk rbtrfùfãçd

qub sb frfk vbigbr ekfs tkrmb. Içd sb kphfgkimd kquf k rbcrk qub hfeftk ks mbmuãòbs k

ue sbxtd (krt. 036.¾, 7).

Bepræstfeds pdr gditk mk rbtrfùfãçd ‗ m) md i.¿ 0 md krt. 036.¾ - h feftb mb ue sbxtd

Fepbijdrk`fhfmkmb

D grbmdr mb qukhqubr trk`khjkmdr s÷ pdmb bspbrkr qub d trfùikh pbijdrb pkrtb mk

rbtrfùfãçd (k pkrtb pbijdrëvbh æ mb ue tbrãd mk rbtrfùfãçd, eks içd pdmb d

trk`khjkmdr lfgkr gde ue vkhdr filbrfdr k ue skhërfd eåifed ikgfdikh b, pdr dutrd hkmd,

k fepbijdrk`fhfmkmb s÷ æ ckrkitfmk ktæ kd vkhdr gdrrbspdimbitb k trïs skhërfds

eåifeds ikgfdikfs ‗ krt. :0=.¾, 0, md G ^rdg. Gfv.).

Ebfds mb tutbhk rbhktfvds kd içd gueprfebitd mk d`rfckãçd mb rbtrfùfãçd

Gksd mds skhërfds be ktrksd? D krtfcd 707.¿, 0, bstk`bhbgb qub «d beprbckmdr qub

lkhtkr guhpdskebitb kd gueprfebitd mb prbstkãòbs pbguifërfks æ d`rfckmd k pkckr

ds gdrrbspdimbitbs ourds mb edrk±.

^drtkitd, d içd gueprfebitd ktbepkmd mk d`rfckãçd mk rbtrfùfãçd gdilbrb kd

trk`khjkmdr d mfrbftd mb sbr fimbeifzkmd gde ds rbspbgtfvds ourds, pkrk khæe mb pdmbr





luimkebitkr d mfrbftd k rbsdhvbr d gditrktd gde oustk gkusk b gde ks fimbeifzkãòbs

hbckfs Qkrt. 76=.¾, 0, k)U. ^krk ckrkitfk mds sbus mfrbftds, ds trk`khjkmdrbs cdzke mb

prfvfhæcfds grbmft÷rfds , fstd æ, mb ckrkitfks bspbgfkfs qub sb trkmuzbe ik lkguhmkmb mb

d trk`khjkmdr qub mbhks `biblfgfk sbr pkcd gde prblbrïigfk k dutrds grbmdrbs. Kssfe,

sb d pktrfe÷ifd md beprbckmdr içd ldr sulfgfbitb pkrk sktfslkzbr tdmks ks suks

d`rfckãòbs, ds trk`khjkmdrbs tïe ue prfvfhæcfd ed`fhfërfd cbrkh Qkrt. 777.¾, ;, k)U.

Wfstbek mb ckrkitfk skhkrfkh

K prdtbgãçd mk rbtrfùfãçd bstbimb-sb kfimk îs sftukãòbs be qub içd ldrke pkcks

ks rbtrfùfãòbs mbvfmks kds trk`khjkmdrbs guods gditrktds gbsskrke ik sbquïigfk mk

mbghkrkãçd mk bxtfiãçd du fisdhvïigfk mk rbspbgtfvk bitfmkmb beprbckmdrk. ^krk

bstb lfe ldf grfkmd ue ‘luimd mb ckrkitfk skhkrfkh―. K ckrkitfk gd`rb ds græmftds

bebrcbitbs md gditrktd mb trk`khjd b mk suk vfdhkãçd du gbsskãçd qub sb tbijke

vbigfmd ids sbfs ebsbs kitbrfdrbs î prdpdsfturk mk kgãçd mb mbghkrkãçd mb

fisdhvïigfk md beprbckmdr du î kprbsbitkãçd md rbqubrfebitd pkrk prdedvbr d

prdgbmfebitd mb gdigfhfkãçd prbvfstd id G÷mfcd mk Fisdhvïigfk (krts. 7;3.¾ k 7;6.¾ mk

PG]). Gditumd, s÷ æ kssbcurkmd d pkckebitd ktæ kd vkhdr bqufvkhbitb k sbfs ebsbs

mb rbtrfùfãçd, içd pdmbimd d editkitb mbstk bxgbmbr d trfphd mk rbeuibrkãçd

eåifek ckrkitfmk pdr hbf (krt. 70>.¾ mk PG]).

Rek vbz blbgtukmd d pkckebitd, d Luimd mb Ckrkitfk Wkhkrfkh lfgk su`-rdckmd ids

mfrbftds md trk`khjkmdr gditrk d rbspbgtfvd beprbckmdr, d qub sfciflfgk qub pkssk k

sbr d Luimd d tftuhkr mbssbs mfrbftds, pdmbimd bxfcfr d sbu gueprfebitd (krt. 700.¾ mk

PG]).

Mdguebitd k bitrbckr kd trk`khjkmdr b rbgf`d

Ids tbreds md krtfcd 03<.¾, 7, «ktæ kd kgtd mb pkckebitd mk rbtrfùfãçd, d

beprbckmdr mbvb bitrbckr kd trk`khjkmdr mdguebitd md qukh gdistb k

fmbitflfgkãçd mkqubhb b d ideb gdephbtd, d iÿebrd mb fisgrfãçd ik fistftufãçd mb

sbcurkiãk sdgfkh b k gktbcdrfk prdlfssfdikh md trk`khjkmdr, k rbtrfùfãçd `ksb b ks

mbekfs prbstkãòbs, `be gded d pbrådmd k qub rbspbftke, ds mbsgditds du mbmuãòbs

b d editkitb håqufmd k rbgb`br±.

D mdguebitd kquf rblbrfmd mbstfik-sb k pdssf`fhftkr kds trk`khjkmdrbs lëgfh vbrflfgkãçd

md gueprfebitd mks rbcrks hbckfs du gdivbigfdikfs id qub tdgk î rbtrfùfãçd. Içd sb

trktk mb ue vbrmkmbfrd rbgf`d, id sbitfmd mb mdguebitd qub lkz prdvk md

pkckebitd mk rbtrfùfãçd k içd sbr qub d beprbckmdr gdisbrvb ue muphfgkmd

kssfikmd pbhd trk`khjkmdr mb qub rbsuhtb k pbrgbpãçd md qukitftktfvd.




^rbsgrfãçd

D krt. 773.¿, ; tbe k sbcufitb rbmkgãçd? ‘D græmftd mb beprbckmdr du mb trk`khjkmdr

bebrcbitb mb gditrktd mb trk`khjd, mk suk vfdhkãçd du gbsskãçd prbsgrbvb

mbgdrrfmd ue kid k pkrtfr md mfk sbcufitb îqubhb be qub gbssdu d gditrktd mb

trk`khjd―. Mkmk k pdsfãçd mb mbpbimïigfk md trk`khjkmdr kpbiks bitçd sb

bigditrkrë k`sdhutkebitb hfvrb b prktfgkebitb jk`fhftkmd k mbmuzfr ds sbus græmftds

Qkrt. 7;:.¾, b), md G. Gfv.U. D prkzd mb prbsgrfãçd æ, gditumd, gurtd? ue kid k gditkr md

mfk sbcufitb kd mk gbsskãçd md gditrktd.

K prbsgrfãçd vbrflfgk-sb içd kpbiks qukitd î rbtrf`ufãçd, eks tke`æe qukitd k

qukhqubr græmftd mds gditrkbitbs bebrcbitb md gditrktd mb trk`khjd b mk suk

vfdhkãçd du gbsskãçd.

]brë mb ktbimbr-sb î mblbsk mds vkhdrbs mb gbrtbzk b sbcurkiãk qub id idssd sfstbek

kgdisbhjk k bxfstïigfk mb blbftds bxtfitfvds rbhktfvds kd mbgursd md tbepd, qub sbok

rbspbftkmk kd ebsed tbepd k mblbsk md trk`khjkmdr b k ibgbssfmkmb mb

bstk`fhfzkãçd mks sftukãòbs (idebkmkebitb mbpdfs mk rupturk md våiguhd), ds

fitbrbssbs mk gdilfkiãk mds gditrkbitbs, sd`rbtumd qukimd k mfrbftds dguhtds, içd

håqufmds b pdrvbiturk ibe sbqubr hftfcfdsds b lfikhebitb ks mflfguhmkmbs mb prdvk mb

pkrtb k pkrtb.

\FFF ‗ Dutrks \kitkcbis b Gdimfãòbs mb ]rk`khjd

\kitkcbis qub içd sb fitbcrke ik rbtrf`ufãçd gdimfãòbs mb trk`khjd?

\kitkcbis qub içd kssuebe gkrkgtbr pktrfedifkh (ck`fibtb fimfvfmukh)

\kitkcbis mb rbmuzfmd vkhdr pktrfedifkh? mfspdif`fhfmkmb mb odrikfs mfërfds,

gklæs

\kitkcbis mb vkitkcbe pktrfedifkh qub gdistftube lkgfhftkãçd mk prbstkãçd

(rblbfãòbs su`sfmfkmks, bstkgfdikebitd crktuftd)

^rbstkãòbs mb kpdfd î lkeåhfk? grbsgbs, bsgdhks, `dhsks pkrk lfhjds

Kpdfd ghfifgd b ebmfgkebitdsd md trk`khjkmdr/lkefhfkrbs

@biblågfds gditrktukfs gdibxds gde d G]? lkgfhfmkmbs id grbmftd/kqufsfãçd mb

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