a globalizacao das artes marciais

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THE GLOBALIZATION

OF MARTIAL ARTST H E C H A N G E OF RULES FOR NEW MARKETS

YONG JAE KO, PH.D. & JIN BANG YANG, PH.D.

In t roduct ion . , . '.

Historically, the martial arts have long been an important form of physical activity and ±

education in East Asian countries {Ko, 2002). The martial arts industry has experienced ' ^tremendous growth and its recent growth has led to an increased awareness of and an .- !.'

involvement in martial arts around the world {Ko, 2002, 2003). As a result, the martial '̂

arts have become an integral part of sports and physical activity that convey a healthy ,.. '"

lifestyle and cultural values with hoth an educational and entertainment function in

many Western countries. The increased numher of martial arts products, practitioners,

organizations, and events reflects that martial arts have become an integral part of our

society.

Today, the martial arts industry is rapidly evolving into a mature and highly com-

petitive marketplace {Ko, 2002, 2003). In the U.S., for example, recent forecasts have

estimated that the number of martial arts participants has increased 60 percent during

the past decade, from 3.6 million people in 1993 to 6 million people in 2001 {NSGA,

2002). The number of commercial martial arts schools has also increased from 13,600 in

1999 to 14,500 in 2003 {InfoUSA, 2003). Meanwhile, the martial arts industry faces

many challenges to compete with the major industries of both traditional and emerging :

sports and leisure activities.

As the martial arts continue to cross national borders and grow as a part of popu-

lar culture in the global community, martial arts literature has called for broader research

on the globalization process and strategies applied by martial arts organizations. In real-

ity, although the martial arts have been moving to greatly increase the range of choices

available to consumers in different countries, adoption patterns have not always been

responsive in ensuring the successful diffusion of the martial arts' educational and enter-tainment potential. For the martial arts to survive in this highly competitive environ-

ment, it is essential to develop a better understanding of the factors that influence the

globalization of martial arts as a cultural product and the decision-making processes of

martial arts consumers in various regions. The academic effort aimed at understanding

these issues is essential not only for maintaining current success but also to fostering the

industry's future growth. To date, however, the literature has neglected the diffusion

process of Asian martial arts to Western society. Thus, there is very little known about

the martial arts as global consumer products and limited scholarly efforts have been made

to examine the issues. i '

, • I

Journal of Asian Martial Arts 0 Volume 17 Number 4 - 2008



Consequently, the purpose of this study is to examine the martial arts as a popular

cultural product and to propose future research and examine the managerial implications

for m artial arts organizations. Specifically, this study furthers the exploration of the mar-

tial arts industry by examining its globalization process and its potential problems. In

addition, there is a discussion of key strategies for the martial arts' further development

in the global market and a set of obligations for the martial arts community leaders. This

study may provide martial arts leaders with important managerial im plications for devel-

oping effective managem ent strategies targeted at martial arts practitioners in the globalmarket. As of yet, there has not heen any substantial research on this issue. This study

will make both scientific and practical contributions.

G l o h a l i z a r i o n

o f M a r t i a l A r t s

Globalization is "the managerial process of integrating worldwide activities into a

single world strategy by managing a network of differentiated but integrated subsidiaries,

affiliates, alliances, and associations" (Tallman & Fladmoe-Lindquist, 20 02: 124). W hileinternationalization {i.e., international expansion/diversification) refers to a strategy of

greater presence in intemationai locations, globalization (i.e., global integration)

involves a strategy of consolidating intemationai markets and operations into a single

worldwide strategic entity. G lobalization is a strategic effort to trea t th e world as a single

market, which requires various combinations of capabilities, strategies and resources

(Tallman & Fladmoe-Lindquist, 2002).

The globalization of Asian martial arts through a broader acceptance as a global

sport has resulted in an increased awareness ot martial arts and broader participation at

the recreational, amateur, and professional levels throughout the world {Ko, 2003). In

particular, this transition from a traditional fighting art to a competition-orientated sport

has been hypothesized to be a major catalyst behind the growth and popularity of many

modem martial arts styles (Yang, 1997).

The Diffusion of Asian Martial Arts in th e United States

From the mid'1880's to the early 199O's, Asian martial arts activities were prac-

ticed in limited areas of the United States. From 1884, Ghinese laborers flocked to

California m ining towns and railroad construc tion sites, and Japanese immigrants moved

to farmland in California and Hawai'i. These Asian immigrants practiced their own tra-

ditional martial arts within their communities (Corcoran & Farkas, 1983; Davey, 1996).

In 1902 and 1903, Japanese judo professional Yamashita Yoshiaki and Tomita

Shumeshiro visited the United States, and formally introduced judo into American soci-

ety (Corcoran & Farkas, 1983). However, it was not until after World War II that

.̂ America had any significant exposure to Asian martial arts. W hen Am erican troops

occupied Japan, Korea, Okinawa, and some parts of China, many GIs had the chance to

leam Asian martial arts, and to bring these arts back home. In some cases, they invited

their foreign instructors to come to the United States to teach {USTU, 1990).

According to Min {1996: 4), "the modem version of Taekwondo owes its character to

those masters who joined together after Korea's liberation from colonial rule (of Japan)

• ^ to establish a Korean martial art that would be able to transcend national borders and

allow Korea to share some of its fine traditions with the rest of the world."

Globalization of Martial Arts 0 Yong Jae Ko & Jin Bang Yang



'- In the 195O's, there were several historical events that promoted Japanese karate

and Korean taekw ondo to the A merican public. In 1952, a Korean-Japanese, Mas Oyama

toured the United States to introduce karate to the American public; in 1953, ten promi-

nent Japanese m artial arts instructors' demo tours followed (Yang, 1996). Table 1 presents

a brief chronology of the early diffusion of Asian martial arts to the Un ited States. Martial

arts enjoyed an increase in popularity following the release of Bruce Lee's movie, "Enter

the D ragon" in 1973, following the television series "Kung Fu" in 1972. Since then, Asian

martial arts have become a favorite theme in Hollywood movies and television shows(Dono hue, 1994; Graper, 1983). "The Karate Kid" (1984), "Best of the Best" (1989 ), and

"Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon" (2000) are only a few exam ples of such media.

With the popularity gained through the early diffusion of martial arts around the

world, in the 197O's, Asian martial arts in the United States underwent significant

changes that gave momentum to their popularization. One change was that American

students achieved instnjctor status. Another milestone was the end of the Vietnam War,

an important event for the intemationai diffusion of taekwondo. With the Korean army

as a Western ally, a taekwondo instructor unit was dispatched primarily to teach particu-

lar U.S. military forces and civilians, but also resulted in spreading the art to other

Am erican soldiers. After the war, soldiers who learned the art, and more significantly .- i

'their Korean instructors, moved to the United States, accelerating the diffusion of tae-

kwondo, which, at the time, was considered only a minor art.

The Current Status of Three Major Asian Martial Arts

The globalization of martial arts can best be illustrated in the cases of judo, tae-

kwondo, and wushu/gongfu. Developed by Dr. Kano Jigoro in the 1880*s, judo spread all

over the world as a result of Japanese emigration . Judo was the first martial art to become V",

an Olympic sport at the 1964 Tokyo, Japan, games. Today, the Intemationai Judo

Federation (IJF) lists about 180 members and over eight million practitioners in the

world (Intemationai Judo Federation, 2007). The Japanese Govemment has institution-

alized cultural education with the official "cultural visa," which allows visitors a longer

stay in Japan for cultural studies (Goldstein-Gidoni, 2005), which include judo and the

other m artial arts. Th e Japanese G ovem men t has also used the martial arts as an avenue

for the promotion of Japanese culture abroad.

In South Korea, although various forms of martial arts have existed, Korean mar-

tial arts leaders chose taekwondo as the definitive Korean martial art in an attempt to

promote its development internationally (IOC, 2007). As a result, the World

Taekwondo Federation (WTF) was formed in 1973 as the legitimate goveming body of

the sport. The organization is made up of taekwondo national goveming bodies.

Currently, the WTF has become one of the largest martial arts organizations in the

world, representing members in 185 countries {WTF, 2007). The increased popularity oftaekwond o and its addition to the Olympics in 2000 clearly indicates that taekwond o ,

has become a global sport. However, behind the development of modem taekwondo is

the strong support of the Korean Govemment. As part of reaffirming cultural identity,

the propagation of taekwondo around the world was conceived as an important govem -

ment goal. Today, govemment leaders emphasize promoting Korean culture overseas to

develop diplomatic relationships under the movement of globalization (segyehwa), and

taekwondo is perceived to be one avenue for this intemationai development {Kim,

1996). A recent gove mm ent plan to build a mega facility {Taekwondo Park) is perceived

to be a catalyst for this mov eme nt. • ' ' . ,, ,, ,

Journal of Asian Martial Arts 0 Volume 17 Number 4 - 2008 . ,



G l o b a l i z a t i o n o f M a r t i a l A r t s :

P r o b l e m s & I s s u e s

Martial art organizations, particularly the IJF and WTF, managed their intema-

tionai network with differentiated but integrated affiliates, alliances, and associations.

Intemationai diversification and global integration allows martial arts organizations to

generate additional revenues in multiple nation al markets by exploiting new assets and

gaining new market power by increasing their size. On the other hand, the globalizationprocess also creates several important issues tha t need to be resolved. Political and cu l' / ^

tural value conflicts and market strategies are key issues, among many others. -• "'

Governance and Pol i t i cs

As each of the martial arts organizations grows to be an intem ationai sport struc-

ture, often they are used as a function of govemment and as an instrument of national

power and interest (Calhoun, 1987). As a result, political conflicts may exist between

headquarters and member organizations that represent the needs of their local markets.

This is true, particularly for the martial arts organizations in developm ental stages. In this

case, it is very important for martial arts organizations in a developmental stage to ere-ate an organizational structure supporting strong integration (centralization) among all

affiliated members. In this process, however, they need to be capable of controlling this

integration without losing the unique qualities and values of individual member organi-

zations by ignoring their needs (Bartlett & Gh osha l, 1989). As martial arts organizations ' [. ¡

mature and grow, it is suggested that organizations should be able to decentralize opera- ' ' ;

tional responsibilities to differentiated subsidiaries. This process may dramatically reduce

the "command and control" role of the headquarters in favor or "coordination and

coaching." In this case, a martial arts organization's role in management and control

needs to be oriented toward efficiency in "know-how ' "

logics" {Tallman & Fladmoe-Lindquist, 2002).

Therefore, these types of changes in leadership stylewill results in a paradigm shift in the management and

political environments of many martial arts organiza-

tions.

Tallman and Fladmoe-Lindquist {2002) outlined

some positive consequences of the strategic configura- _ , ^ ^

tion of multinational organizations: a) the capability to ^^^'^m^

generate dynamic synergy, b) the ability to use alliances

to explore new knowledge, rather than focus on whole

ownership to protect old knowledge, and c) a favorable

response from local markets toward products through

empowerment. Central administration needs to devel-

op skills at coordinating, not controlling, on a global

basis. Thus, the administration becomes responsible for

setting standards and building frameworks rather than

actively managing operations on a daily basis. As a

result, headquarters knows when to set standards (e.g.,

financial reporting) and when to stay out of transac-

tions. Fairness, social justice, and effective distribution

strategies must also be considered.




Cu ltur e * ' •

Culture still matters in the martial arts business. Culture is a set of socially

acquired behavior patterns transmitted symbolically through language and other means

to the members of a particular society, which distinguishes the members of one category

of people from another (Wallendorf & Reilly, 1983). Understanding different and

diverse cultures could enhance the organization's performance {e.g., revenue genera-

tion), because such understanding leads to more viable market penetration {Hilliard-

Jones, 1996). However, the major problems faced by cross-cultural and intemationai

management stem from both the value differences and incongruency between the cen-

tral administration's underlying core values and the values central to the host cultural

setting {Lachman, Nedd, & Hinning, 1994; Penaloza &. Gilly, 1999).

In consideration of the martial arts as a popular cultural product, one of the main

goals of headquarters is to spread cultural values and technical knowledge of the martial

arts among members throu ghout the world {Ko & Pastore, 1998 ). In the process of diffu-

sion of cultural produ cts, it is an undeniab le reality th at many members of affiliated orga-

nizations may face value conflicts between the culture of the local market and the coun-

try of origin. Thus , it is very imp ortant for m artial arts leaders to understand tha t funda-

mental cultural differences may exist among countries and organizations. Additionally,these differences may conceivably influence organizational practices (Ko & Pastore,

1998). In this case, a main source of the value conflict may be the Confucian values of

the Eastern mindset and the pragmatism of Westem practitioners. According to Kim

(1996: 33), "Confucianism sees all human relations in the light of a vertical relation-

ship.... In an organization, it meant employees were to obey employers and juniors to

respect seniors." In addition, collectivism and individualism (e.g., Hofstede, 1991) may

explain some important cultural gaps among intemationai members. In coUectivistic cul-

tures, the self is construed in interdependent terms as a connected, relational entity that

is expected to fit in by maintaining interpersonal relationships and group harmony. On

the other hand, in individualistic cultures, the self is construed as an independent entity

that is expected to stand out by becoming distinguished from others through personal

accomplishment. For example, due to the difference of cultural values, dealing directly

with conflict or problems in North America is generally considered appropriate while in

Korea and other Far East cultures, the same behavior may be seen as impolite or overly

aggressive (Tushman & O'Reilly. 1997). As another example, building a positive rela-

I l lus tra t ion cour tesy o f

www. iS tock .com

14 Globalization of Martial Arts 0 Yong Jae Ko & Jin Bang Yang



tionship is a prerequisite in doing business in many Asian countries with coUectivisticcultures, while, in W estem cultures, business relationships ten d to be straightforward anddominated by overt legal and financial negotiations.

Therefore, leaders in martial arts organizations need to be aware of how culturaldifferences impact organizational performance in diverse intemationai markets and howto manage cultural values and diversity issues within their organizations {Doney,Cannon, &. Mullen, 1998). This will ultimately help enhance efficiency and effective-

ness in their job performance. Although standardization and formalization {hardware)are very important in the globalization process, leaders should recognize unique culturalvalues (software) of local markets and help develop a third culture that represents nei-ther the cultural values from country of origin nor the culture of local country, throughdiffusion of martial arts. In reality, while ma rtial arts embody th e cultura l beliefs and val-ues of the country of origin, through the assimilation process, their meaning is graduallyaltered for consistency with the local culture and identities of native participants {e.g..Duda & Allisaon, 1990). Thus, cultural training {e.g., human resource management)may improve understanding of cultural gaps and help incorporate unique local manage-ment styles and attract the best worldwide talent. Capable human resources are the most

impo rtant asset to martial arts organizations and their growth. , Í . ^ •

Market Orientation and Trust 'f

Th e long-term viability and financial success of the martial arts organizations are ' ^con ting ent upon a better understand ing of consumers tha t involves identifying con- . ' ^sumers' unique needs and satisfying them by providing quality services. Th is topic has '̂ ^historically been of Uttle interest to this industry and so its application is relatively new(Ko, 2003; 2004). ' v

Market orientation is the organization-wide generation of market intelligence anddissemination of that intelligence across affiliate organization members {Jaworski &Kohli, 1993; Kohli & Jaworski, 1990). Market orientation supports the management phi-losophy tha t highlights the central importance of customers. Th e lack of market orien- . ,tation may result in demand uncertain ty and critical manag ement errors in the global i 'market con text. This situation emerges when, for examp le, organizations iaunch new ^ ' Nproducts for which there is no latent demand, or when organizations fail to launch prod- ^'

ucts that would have been successful, which represent latent demand for which there isno supply (Eliashberg, Lilien, & Rao, 1997). Therefore, martial arts organizations needto continue to tbcus on who their customers are, why they participate in martial arts andhow to satisfy them. The market-oriented organizational culture and management phi-losophy will also help develop trust among members within an organization.

Martial arts participants seek to leam different cultures and philosophies embod-

ied in the traditional values of martial arts {Ko & Valacich, 2004). This indicates thatconsumers perceive martial arts training as a cultural leaming process. Through thisprocess, they leam the traditional values of martial arts training (e.g., respect, persever-ance , discipline, self-control, m odesty, integrity, and loyalty) wh ile they satisfy their ownneeds {e.g., physical, me ntal, and social benefits) {Boudreau, Folman, & Konzak, 1995;Kennedy, 1997; Ko &. Valacich, 2004 ; Yang, 2000 ). However, m ore systematic researchneeds to be conducted for a better understanding of the global market and successfulimplementation of marketing strategies. This more systematic approach will ensure thatthis dual process of assimilating cultural values through physical activity remains as themajor com petitive advantage for martial arts organizations (Ko, 200 3). - • •*- '




Ulustrathn courtesy ofwww.iStock.com

Discussion & Conclusions

The globalization of the martial

arts will cont inue . As globalization caus-

es dramatic changes in the business

environment, forecasting such changes

is crucial for the preparation of respons-

es by the affected parties (Czinkota &

Ronk ainen, 2005). Thu s, the future suc-cess of martial arts organizations is

dependent upon how well they adapt to

a continuously changing market envi-

ronment.

The ultimate goal of martial arts

organizations is to develop network

structures to create new value through

the integration of various kinds of

knowledge, resources, and capabilities

across its geographically dispersed national organizations. This process can be accom-plished by respecting the cultural uniquen ess of local market and the organization's traris-

parency and accountability. Additionally, the central administration in the various head-

quarters will continue to be confronted with re-distribution issues in regard to revenue

and power. To be a true global cultural product, the ownership of martial arts should be

equally shared among the members. The martial arts are no longer the property of their

countries of origin. In ad dition, to deem it a "global sport," martial arts leaders must focus

not only on the number of member nations (breadth), but also on the number of people

who participate in each nation (depth), particularly in countries that are politically and

geographically isolated.

Direct ions for Future Research

Many questions remain. Once a basic understanding of the global expansion of

martial arts and its diverse m arket is attaine d, more specific q uestions, like the following,

should be explored: How can leaders enhan ce the efficiency and effectiveness of martial

arts organizations? W hat are key strategies to prom ote m artial arts products, services, and

events? Wh at changes should be made in marketing and m anagement strategies? How do

cultural diversity factors influence strategies for distribution of the martial arts in the

global marketplace? What marketing and promotional strategies would be most effective

in targeting specific target markets (subcultures)? To what degree are various subgroups

within a specific member-nation satisfied and how do they develop loyalty, and how

could marketing strategies impact such development? What are perceptions and attitudes

that the general public developed toward martial arts, organizations and events? And,

finally, what should be done to promote martial arts as true global products? Answering

such questions would greatly assist in establishing a useful understanding of global con-

sumers who participate in martial arts and provide the leaders in this industry with

insights for the development of global market strategies.

16 Glo bal iiatio n of Martial Arts 0 Yong Jae Ko ¿k Jin Bang Yang



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