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UFABC - Física Quântica - Curso 2017.3 Prof. Germán Lugones Aula 6 O princípio de incerteza 1

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Page 1: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

UFABC - Física Quântica - Curso 2017.3 Prof. Germán Lugones

Aula 6 O princípio de incerteza

1

Page 2: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

Em qualquer discussão a respeito de ondas, sempre surge a questão: o que está ondulando?

No caso de algumas ondas, a resposta é óbvia: • nas ondas do mar, é a água que ondula; • nas onda sonoras, são as moléculas do ar; • no caso da luz, são os campos elétrico e magnético.

E no caso das ondas de matéria? • no caso das ondas de matéria que está ondulado e a probabilidade de

observar a partícula!

2

Ondas de matéria

Page 3: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

As ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica

Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude y, frequência f, e período T, que se propagam no sentido positivo do eixo x de acordo com a equação:

onde a frequência angular ! e o número de onda k são definidos através das equações:

e a velocidade da onda, conhecida como velocidade de fase é dada por

3

204 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

This value on the curve corresponds to about 6 � 10�3 on the L�Lc axis. The Comp-ton wavelength of the proton is

Lc �h

mc �6.63 � 10�34 J � s�1.67 � 10�27 kg� �3 � 108 m�s� � 1.32 � 10�15 m

and we have then for the particle’s de Broglie wavelength

L � �6 � 10�3� �1.32 � 10�15 m� � 7.9 � 10�18 m � 7.9 � 10�3 fm

Questions

1. Since the electrons used by Davisson and Germer were low energy, they penetrated only a few atomic layers into the crystal, so it is rather surprising that the effects of the inner layers show so clearly. What feature of the diffraction is most affected by the relatively shallow penetration?

2. How might the frequency of de Broglie waves be measured?3. Why is it not reasonable to do crystallographic studies with protons?

5-3 Wave Packets In any discussion of waves the question arises, “What’s waving?” For some waves the answer is clear: for waves on the ocean, it is the water that “waves”; for sound waves in air, it is the molecules that constitute the air; for light, it is the J and the B. So what is waving for matter waves? For matter waves as for light waves, there is no “ether.” As will be developed in this section and the next, the particle is in a sense “smeared out” over the extent of the wave, so for matter it is the probability of finding the particle that waves.

Classical waves are solutions of the classical wave equation

2 y

� x2 �1v2

2 y

� t2 5-11

Important among classical waves is the harmonic wave of amplitude y0, frequency f, and period T, traveling in the �x direction as written here:

y�x, t� � y0 cos�kx � Vt� � y0 cos 2P4 xL

� tT5 � y0 cos

2P

L�x � vt� 5-12

where the angular frequency V and the wave number 8 k are defined by

V � 2Pf �2P

T 5-13a

and

k �2P

L 5-13b

and the velocity v of the wave, the so-called wave or phase velocity vp, is given by

vp � f L 5-14

A familiar wave phenomenon that cannot be described by a single harmonic wave is a pulse, such as the flip of one end of a long string (Figure 5-14a), a sudden

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 204 8/22/11 11:40 AM

204 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

This value on the curve corresponds to about 6 � 10�3 on the L�Lc axis. The Comp-ton wavelength of the proton is

Lc �h

mc �6.63 � 10�34 J � s�1.67 � 10�27 kg� �3 � 108 m�s� � 1.32 � 10�15 m

and we have then for the particle’s de Broglie wavelength

L � �6 � 10�3� �1.32 � 10�15 m� � 7.9 � 10�18 m � 7.9 � 10�3 fm

Questions

1. Since the electrons used by Davisson and Germer were low energy, they penetrated only a few atomic layers into the crystal, so it is rather surprising that the effects of the inner layers show so clearly. What feature of the diffraction is most affected by the relatively shallow penetration?

2. How might the frequency of de Broglie waves be measured?3. Why is it not reasonable to do crystallographic studies with protons?

5-3 Wave Packets In any discussion of waves the question arises, “What’s waving?” For some waves the answer is clear: for waves on the ocean, it is the water that “waves”; for sound waves in air, it is the molecules that constitute the air; for light, it is the J and the B. So what is waving for matter waves? For matter waves as for light waves, there is no “ether.” As will be developed in this section and the next, the particle is in a sense “smeared out” over the extent of the wave, so for matter it is the probability of finding the particle that waves.

Classical waves are solutions of the classical wave equation

2 y

� x2 �1v2

2 y

� t2 5-11

Important among classical waves is the harmonic wave of amplitude y0, frequency f, and period T, traveling in the �x direction as written here:

y�x, t� � y0 cos�kx � Vt� � y0 cos 2P4 xL

� tT5 � y0 cos

2P

L�x � vt� 5-12

where the angular frequency V and the wave number 8 k are defined by

V � 2Pf �2P

T 5-13a

and

k �2P

L 5-13b

and the velocity v of the wave, the so-called wave or phase velocity vp, is given by

vp � f L 5-14

A familiar wave phenomenon that cannot be described by a single harmonic wave is a pulse, such as the flip of one end of a long string (Figure 5-14a), a sudden

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 204 8/22/11 11:40 AM

204 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

This value on the curve corresponds to about 6 � 10�3 on the L�Lc axis. The Comp-ton wavelength of the proton is

Lc �h

mc �6.63 � 10�34 J � s�1.67 � 10�27 kg� �3 � 108 m�s� � 1.32 � 10�15 m

and we have then for the particle’s de Broglie wavelength

L � �6 � 10�3� �1.32 � 10�15 m� � 7.9 � 10�18 m � 7.9 � 10�3 fm

Questions

1. Since the electrons used by Davisson and Germer were low energy, they penetrated only a few atomic layers into the crystal, so it is rather surprising that the effects of the inner layers show so clearly. What feature of the diffraction is most affected by the relatively shallow penetration?

2. How might the frequency of de Broglie waves be measured?3. Why is it not reasonable to do crystallographic studies with protons?

5-3 Wave Packets In any discussion of waves the question arises, “What’s waving?” For some waves the answer is clear: for waves on the ocean, it is the water that “waves”; for sound waves in air, it is the molecules that constitute the air; for light, it is the J and the B. So what is waving for matter waves? For matter waves as for light waves, there is no “ether.” As will be developed in this section and the next, the particle is in a sense “smeared out” over the extent of the wave, so for matter it is the probability of finding the particle that waves.

Classical waves are solutions of the classical wave equation

2 y

� x2 �1v2

2 y

� t2 5-11

Important among classical waves is the harmonic wave of amplitude y0, frequency f, and period T, traveling in the �x direction as written here:

y�x, t� � y0 cos�kx � Vt� � y0 cos 2P4 xL

� tT5 � y0 cos

2P

L�x � vt� 5-12

where the angular frequency V and the wave number 8 k are defined by

V � 2Pf �2P

T 5-13a

and

k �2P

L 5-13b

and the velocity v of the wave, the so-called wave or phase velocity vp, is given by

vp � f L 5-14

A familiar wave phenomenon that cannot be described by a single harmonic wave is a pulse, such as the flip of one end of a long string (Figure 5-14a), a sudden

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 204 8/22/11 11:40 AM

204 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

This value on the curve corresponds to about 6 � 10�3 on the L�Lc axis. The Comp-ton wavelength of the proton is

Lc �h

mc �6.63 � 10�34 J � s�1.67 � 10�27 kg� �3 � 108 m�s� � 1.32 � 10�15 m

and we have then for the particle’s de Broglie wavelength

L � �6 � 10�3� �1.32 � 10�15 m� � 7.9 � 10�18 m � 7.9 � 10�3 fm

Questions

1. Since the electrons used by Davisson and Germer were low energy, they penetrated only a few atomic layers into the crystal, so it is rather surprising that the effects of the inner layers show so clearly. What feature of the diffraction is most affected by the relatively shallow penetration?

2. How might the frequency of de Broglie waves be measured?3. Why is it not reasonable to do crystallographic studies with protons?

5-3 Wave Packets In any discussion of waves the question arises, “What’s waving?” For some waves the answer is clear: for waves on the ocean, it is the water that “waves”; for sound waves in air, it is the molecules that constitute the air; for light, it is the J and the B. So what is waving for matter waves? For matter waves as for light waves, there is no “ether.” As will be developed in this section and the next, the particle is in a sense “smeared out” over the extent of the wave, so for matter it is the probability of finding the particle that waves.

Classical waves are solutions of the classical wave equation

2 y

� x2 �1v2

2 y

� t2 5-11

Important among classical waves is the harmonic wave of amplitude y0, frequency f, and period T, traveling in the �x direction as written here:

y�x, t� � y0 cos�kx � Vt� � y0 cos 2P4 xL

� tT5 � y0 cos

2P

L�x � vt� 5-12

where the angular frequency V and the wave number 8 k are defined by

V � 2Pf �2P

T 5-13a

and

k �2P

L 5-13b

and the velocity v of the wave, the so-called wave or phase velocity vp, is given by

vp � f L 5-14

A familiar wave phenomenon that cannot be described by a single harmonic wave is a pulse, such as the flip of one end of a long string (Figure 5-14a), a sudden

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 204 8/22/11 11:40 AM

204 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

This value on the curve corresponds to about 6 � 10�3 on the L�Lc axis. The Comp-ton wavelength of the proton is

Lc �h

mc �6.63 � 10�34 J � s�1.67 � 10�27 kg� �3 � 108 m�s� � 1.32 � 10�15 m

and we have then for the particle’s de Broglie wavelength

L � �6 � 10�3� �1.32 � 10�15 m� � 7.9 � 10�18 m � 7.9 � 10�3 fm

Questions

1. Since the electrons used by Davisson and Germer were low energy, they penetrated only a few atomic layers into the crystal, so it is rather surprising that the effects of the inner layers show so clearly. What feature of the diffraction is most affected by the relatively shallow penetration?

2. How might the frequency of de Broglie waves be measured?3. Why is it not reasonable to do crystallographic studies with protons?

5-3 Wave Packets In any discussion of waves the question arises, “What’s waving?” For some waves the answer is clear: for waves on the ocean, it is the water that “waves”; for sound waves in air, it is the molecules that constitute the air; for light, it is the J and the B. So what is waving for matter waves? For matter waves as for light waves, there is no “ether.” As will be developed in this section and the next, the particle is in a sense “smeared out” over the extent of the wave, so for matter it is the probability of finding the particle that waves.

Classical waves are solutions of the classical wave equation

2 y

� x2 �1v2

2 y

� t2 5-11

Important among classical waves is the harmonic wave of amplitude y0, frequency f, and period T, traveling in the �x direction as written here:

y�x, t� � y0 cos�kx � Vt� � y0 cos 2P4 xL

� tT5 � y0 cos

2P

L�x � vt� 5-12

where the angular frequency V and the wave number 8 k are defined by

V � 2Pf �2P

T 5-13a

and

k �2P

L 5-13b

and the velocity v of the wave, the so-called wave or phase velocity vp, is given by

vp � f L 5-14

A familiar wave phenomenon that cannot be described by a single harmonic wave is a pulse, such as the flip of one end of a long string (Figure 5-14a), a sudden

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 204 8/22/11 11:40 AM

Page 4: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

Pacotes de ondas

4

Um dos fenômenos ondulatórios mais comuns é o pulso de ondas, que não pode ser descrito por uma única onda harmônica.

A principal característica de um pulso e o fato de se tratar de um fenômeno localizado no tempo e no espaço.

Uma onda harmônica isolada não é localizada nem no tempo nem espaço. Entretanto, um pulso pode ser representado por um grupo de funções harmônicas de diferentes frequências e comprimentos de onda.

Um grupo desse tipo e conhecido como pacote de ondas.

Page 5: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

5

(a) Uma deformação isolada que se propaga ao longo de uma corda e um exemplo de um pulso. O pulso é um fenômeno localizado, ao contrário das ondas harmônicas, que se estendem indefinidamente no espaço e no tempo.

(b)Um pacote de ondas formado pela superposição de ondas harmônicas.

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

Page 6: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

6

Um pacote de onda relativamente simples pode ser construído a partir de duas ondas harmônicas da mesma amplitude e frequências muito próximas.

Usando a relação trigonométrica:

podemos escrever:

onde e

Como os números de onda e as frequências são muito próximos, os termos (k1 + k2)/2 e (!1 + !2)/2 podem ser substituídos por um número de onda médio e uma frequência angular média :

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

APÊNDICE BRELAÇÕES MATEMÁTICAS ÚTEIS

Álgebra

a-x =1ax a 1x +y2 = axay a 1x-y2 =

ax

ay

Logaritmos: Se log a ! x, então a ! 10x. log a " log b ! log(ab) log a # log b ! log(a/b) log(an) ! n log a Se ln a ! x, então a ! ex. ln a " ln b ! ln(ab) ln a # ln b ! ln(a/b) ln(an) ! n ln a

Equação do segundo grau: Se ax2 " bx " c ! 0, x =-b ± "b2 - 4ac

2a.

Série binomial

1a + b2n = an + nan -1 b +n 1n - 1 2 an -2b2

2!+

n 1n - 1 2 1n - 22 an -3b3

3!+g

TrigonometriaNo triângulo retângulo ABC, x2 " y2 ! r2.

Definições das funções trigonométricas:

sen a ! y/r cos a ! x/r tan a ! y/x

Identidades:

sen2a " cos2a ! 1 tan a =sen a

cos a

sen 2a ! 2 sen a cos a cos 2a ! cos2a # sen2a ! 2 cos2 a # 1 ! 1 # 2 sen2 a

sen 12 a = €1 - co s a

2

co s 12 a = €1 + co s a

2

sen(#a) ! #sen a sen(a $ b) ! sen a cos b $ cos a sen b

cos(#a) ! cos a cos (a $ b) ! cos a cos b % sen a sen b

sen(a $ p/2) ! $ cos a sen a " sen b ! 2sen 12 (a " b) cos 12 (a # b)

cos(a $ p/2) ! % sen a cos a " cos b ! 2cos 12 (a " b) cos 12 (a # b)

Para qualquer triângulo A9 B9 C9 (não necessariamente um triângulo retângulo) com lados a, b e c e ângulos a, b e g:

Lei dos senos: sen aa

=sen b

b=

sen gc

Lei dos cossenos: c2 ! a2 " b2 # 2ab cos g

A B

C

yr

x

a

A′

g

B′

C′

ab

ca b

Book_SEARS_Vol2.indb 351 02/10/15 1:53 PM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

Page 7: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

A figura mostra um gráfico de y em função de x em um dado instante.

As ondas estão em fase na origem; entretanto, por causa da diferença dos comprimentos de onda, ficam alternadamente em fase e fora de fase à medida que x aumenta.

7

Page 8: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

8

A curva tracejada é a envoltória da soma das duas ondas, dada pelo primeiro cosseno da equação.

A largura da envoltória, Δx, é inversamente proporcional à diferença entre os números de onda, Δk.

A curva tracejada é a envoltória de um grupo de ondas. Por isso, a velocidade da envoltória se denomina velocidade de grupo.

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

amplitude que varia com o tempo; envoltória

onda harmônica

vg =(�!)/2

(�k)/2=

�!

�k

Page 9: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

9

A onda no interior da envoltória, representada pelo segundo cosseno, se propaga com velocidade .

Essa velocidade é denominada velocidade de fase:

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

amplitude que varia com o tempo; envoltória

onda harmônica

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

vf =!̄

Page 10: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

10

No exemplo acima, qual é maior? A velocidade de fase ou a velocidade de grupo?

Page 11: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

11

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 205

noise, or the brief opening of a shutter in front of a light source. The main characteris-tic of a pulse is localization in time and space; whereas a single harmonic wave is not localized in either time or space. The description of a pulse can be obtained by the superposition of a group of harmonic waves of different frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group is called a wave packet (see Figure 5-14b). The mathematics of repre-senting arbitrarily shaped pulses by sums of sine or cosine functions involves Fourier series and Fourier integrals. We will illustrate the phenomenon of wave packets by considering some simple and somewhat artificial examples and discussing the general properties qualitatively. Wave groups are particularly important because a wave description of a particle must include the important property of localization.

Consider a simple group consisting of only two waves of equal amplitude and nearly equal frequencies and wavelengths. Such a group occurs in the phenomenon of beats and is described in most introductory textbooks. The quantities k, V, and v are related to one another via Equations 5-13 and 5-14. Let the wave numbers be k1 and k2, the angular frequencies V1 and V2, and the speeds v1 and v2. The sum of the two waves is

y�x, t� � y0 cos�k1 x � V1t� � y0 cos�k2 x � V2 t�which, with the use of a bit of trigonometry, becomes

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 $k2

x � $V

2 t5 cos4 k1 � k2

2 x �

V1 � V2

2 t5

where $k � k2 � k1 and $V � V2 � V1. Since the two waves have nearly equal val-ues of k and V, we will write k � �k1 � k2� �2 and V � �V1 � V2� �2 for the mean values. The sum is then

y�x, t� � 2y0 cos4 12

$k x � 12

$V t5 cos�kx � Vt� 5-15

Figure 5-15 shows a sketch of y(x, t0) versus x at some time t0. The dashed curve is the envelope of the group of two waves, given by the first cosine term in Equation 5-15. The wave within the envelope moves with the speed V�k, the phase velocity vp due to the second cosine term. (Be aware that vp may exceed c.) If we write the first (amplitude modulating) term as cos�1

2$k�x � �$V�$k�t� we see that the envelope moves with speed $V�$k. The speed of the envelope is called the group velocity vg.

A more general wave packet can be constructed if, instead of adding just two sinusoidal waves as in Figure 5-15, we superpose a larger, finite number with slightly

FIGURE 5-14 (a) Wavepulse moving along a string. A pulse has a beginning and an end; that is, it is localized, unlike a pure harmonic wave, which goes on forever in space and time. (b) A wave packet formed by the superposition of harmonic waves.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 5-15 Two waves of slightly different wavelength and frequency produce beats. (a) Shows y(x) at a given instant for each of the two waves. The waves are in phase at the origin, but because of the difference in wavelength, they become out of phase and then in phase again. (b) The sum of these waves. The spatial extent of the group $x is inversely proportional to the difference in wave numbers $k, where k is related to the wavelength by k � 2P�L. Identical figures are obtained if y is plotted versus time t at a fixed point x. In that case the extent in time $t is inversely proportional to the frequency difference $V.

(a)

(b)

y

x

y

xx1

$x

x2

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 205 8/22/11 11:40 AM

A soma de duas ondas harmônicas não chega a produzir um pacote de ondas localizado. Contudo, podemos assumir a região de localização como sendo a largura da envoltória, Δx. Veja que ∆x corresponde a meio comprimento de onda da envoltória.

A função que descreve a envoltória é:

y0(x, t) = cos

✓�k

2x� �!

2t

◆= cos

✓�k

2[x� vgt]

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Como Δx equivale a meio comprimento de onda da envoltória, devemos ter:

Como cos(A) = –cos(A+"), a relação acima é satisfeita se:

Portanto,

y0(x, t) = �y0(x+�x, t)

cos

✓�k

2[x� vgt]

◆= � cos

✓�k

2[(x+�x)� vgt]

cos

✓�k

2[x� vgt]

◆= � cos

✓�k

2[x� vgt] +

�k

2�x

"

�k

2�x = ⇡

�k�x = 2⇡

12

Page 13: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

Podemos construir um pacote de ondas "mais localizado" se, em vez de somar apenas duas ondas senoidais, somarmos um número maior de ondas com comprimentos de onda ligeiramente diferentes e amplitudes diferentes.

206 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

different wavelengths and different amplitudes. For example, Figure 5-16a illustrates the superposing of seven cosines with wavelengths from L9 � 1�9 to L15 � 1�15 (wave numbers from k9 � 18P to k15 � 30P) at time t0. The waves are all in phase at

x � 0 and again at x � {12, x � {24,… Their sum y�x, t0� � =15

i�9yi�x, t0� oscillates

with maxima at those values of x, decreasing and increasing at other values as a result of the changing phases of the waves (see Figure 5-16b). Now, if we superpose an infi-nite number of waves from the same range of wavelengths and wave numbers as in Figure 5-16 with infinitesimally different values of k, the central group aroundx � 0 will be essentially the same as in that figure. However, the additional groups will no longer be present since there is now no length along the x axis into which an exactly integral number of all of the infinite number of component waves can fit. Thus, we have formed a single wave packet throughout this (one-dimensional) space. This packet moves at the group velocity vg � dV�dk. The mathematics needed to

30�–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1

1/2y0

k

k

1/41/3

3/4

16� 20� 24�

4�

28� 32�

y9 18�

y10 20�

y11 22�

y12 24�

y13 26�

y14

y15

28�

y = � yii

x (units of 1/12)

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 5-16 (a) Superposition of seven sinusoids yk(x, t) � y0k cos(kx � Vt) with uniformly spaced wave numbers ranging from k � (2P)9 to k � (2P)15 with t � 0. The maximum amplitude is 1 at the center of the range (k � (2P)12), decreasing to 1/2, 1/3, and 1/4,

respectively, for the waves on each side of the central wave. (b) The sum y�x, 0� � =15

i�9yi�x, 0�

is maximum at x � 0 with additional maxima equally spaced along the {x axis. (c) Amplitudes of the sinusoids yi versus wave number k.

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 206 8/23/11 4:29 PM

Sejam sete senoides da forma:

com números de onda igualmente espaçados de k=9(2") até k=15(2") com amplitudes de 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4.

206 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

different wavelengths and different amplitudes. For example, Figure 5-16a illustrates the superposing of seven cosines with wavelengths from L9 � 1�9 to L15 � 1�15 (wave numbers from k9 � 18P to k15 � 30P) at time t0. The waves are all in phase at

x � 0 and again at x � {12, x � {24,… Their sum y�x, t0� � =15

i�9yi�x, t0� oscillates

with maxima at those values of x, decreasing and increasing at other values as a result of the changing phases of the waves (see Figure 5-16b). Now, if we superpose an infi-nite number of waves from the same range of wavelengths and wave numbers as in Figure 5-16 with infinitesimally different values of k, the central group aroundx � 0 will be essentially the same as in that figure. However, the additional groups will no longer be present since there is now no length along the x axis into which an exactly integral number of all of the infinite number of component waves can fit. Thus, we have formed a single wave packet throughout this (one-dimensional) space. This packet moves at the group velocity vg � dV�dk. The mathematics needed to

30�–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1

1/2y0

k

k

1/41/3

3/4

16� 20� 24�

4�

28� 32�

y9 18�

y10 20�

y11 22�

y12 24�

y13 26�

y14

y15

28�

y = � yii

x (units of 1/12)

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 5-16 (a) Superposition of seven sinusoids yk(x, t) � y0k cos(kx � Vt) with uniformly spaced wave numbers ranging from k � (2P)9 to k � (2P)15 with t � 0. The maximum amplitude is 1 at the center of the range (k � (2P)12), decreasing to 1/2, 1/3, and 1/4,

respectively, for the waves on each side of the central wave. (b) The sum y�x, 0� � =15

i�9yi�x, 0�

is maximum at x � 0 with additional maxima equally spaced along the {x axis. (c) Amplitudes of the sinusoids yi versus wave number k.

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 206 8/23/11 4:29 PM

13

Page 14: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

A onda resultante é obtida fazendo:

206 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

different wavelengths and different amplitudes. For example, Figure 5-16a illustrates the superposing of seven cosines with wavelengths from L9 � 1�9 to L15 � 1�15 (wave numbers from k9 � 18P to k15 � 30P) at time t0. The waves are all in phase at

x � 0 and again at x � {12, x � {24,… Their sum y�x, t0� � =15

i�9yi�x, t0� oscillates

with maxima at those values of x, decreasing and increasing at other values as a result of the changing phases of the waves (see Figure 5-16b). Now, if we superpose an infi-nite number of waves from the same range of wavelengths and wave numbers as in Figure 5-16 with infinitesimally different values of k, the central group aroundx � 0 will be essentially the same as in that figure. However, the additional groups will no longer be present since there is now no length along the x axis into which an exactly integral number of all of the infinite number of component waves can fit. Thus, we have formed a single wave packet throughout this (one-dimensional) space. This packet moves at the group velocity vg � dV�dk. The mathematics needed to

30�–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1

1/2y0

k

k

1/41/3

3/4

16� 20� 24�

4�

28� 32�

y9 18�

y10 20�

y11 22�

y12 24�

y13 26�

y14

y15

28�

y = � yii

x (units of 1/12)

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 5-16 (a) Superposition of seven sinusoids yk(x, t) � y0k cos(kx � Vt) with uniformly spaced wave numbers ranging from k � (2P)9 to k � (2P)15 with t � 0. The maximum amplitude is 1 at the center of the range (k � (2P)12), decreasing to 1/2, 1/3, and 1/4,

respectively, for the waves on each side of the central wave. (b) The sum y�x, 0� � =15

i�9yi�x, 0�

is maximum at x � 0 with additional maxima equally spaced along the {x axis. (c) Amplitudes of the sinusoids yi versus wave number k.

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 206 8/23/11 4:29 PM

206 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

different wavelengths and different amplitudes. For example, Figure 5-16a illustrates the superposing of seven cosines with wavelengths from L9 � 1�9 to L15 � 1�15 (wave numbers from k9 � 18P to k15 � 30P) at time t0. The waves are all in phase at

x � 0 and again at x � {12, x � {24,… Their sum y�x, t0� � =15

i�9yi�x, t0� oscillates

with maxima at those values of x, decreasing and increasing at other values as a result of the changing phases of the waves (see Figure 5-16b). Now, if we superpose an infi-nite number of waves from the same range of wavelengths and wave numbers as in Figure 5-16 with infinitesimally different values of k, the central group aroundx � 0 will be essentially the same as in that figure. However, the additional groups will no longer be present since there is now no length along the x axis into which an exactly integral number of all of the infinite number of component waves can fit. Thus, we have formed a single wave packet throughout this (one-dimensional) space. This packet moves at the group velocity vg � dV�dk. The mathematics needed to

30�–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1

1/2y0

k

k

1/41/3

3/4

16� 20� 24�

4�

28� 32�

y9 18�

y10 20�

y11 22�

y12 24�

y13 26�

y14

y15

28�

y = � yii

x (units of 1/12)

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 5-16 (a) Superposition of seven sinusoids yk(x, t) � y0k cos(kx � Vt) with uniformly spaced wave numbers ranging from k � (2P)9 to k � (2P)15 with t � 0. The maximum amplitude is 1 at the center of the range (k � (2P)12), decreasing to 1/2, 1/3, and 1/4,

respectively, for the waves on each side of the central wave. (b) The sum y�x, 0� � =15

i�9yi�x, 0�

is maximum at x � 0 with additional maxima equally spaced along the {x axis. (c) Amplitudes of the sinusoids yi versus wave number k.

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 206 8/23/11 4:29 PM

Neste caso obtivemos um pacote de ondas "mais localizado” que o pacote obtido somando duas senoides.

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Page 15: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

Para se obter um pulso isolado, é preciso construir um pacote com uma distribuição contínua de ondas. Nesse caso, é possível obter um pulso “central” e os grupos secundários desaparecem.

-4 -2 2 4

1

2

3

4

vg =�!

�k=

d!

dk

A velocidades de fase e velocidade de grupo são dadas por:

Se realizamos a superposição de uma infinidade ondas senoidais com:

• valores de k dentro de um intervalo Δk • frequências dentro de um intervalo Δ!

obtemos um pacote de ondas com uma • largura Δx • duração Δt

vp = f� =⇣ !

2⇡

⌘✓2⇡

k

◆=

!

k 15

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A partir de vp=!/k escrevemos ! = k vp e derivamos em relação a k:

Se a velocidade de fase é a mesma para todas as frequências, dvp/dk=0 e a velocidade de grupo e igual à velocidade de fase: vg=vp.

Meio não-dispersivo: Um meio no qual a velocidade de fase e a mesma para todos os comprimentos de onda é chamado de não dispersivo (como o vácuo para ondas eletromagnéticas).

Em um meio não dispersivo → todas as ondas harmônicas que formam o pacote de ondas se movem com a mesma velocidade. Portanto, o pacote se propaga sem mudar de forma.

vg ⌘ d!

dk=

d(kvp)

dk= vp + k

dvpdk

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Meio dispersivo: Quando a velocidade de fase é diferente para diferentes comprimentos de onda, o pulso muda de forma enquanto se propaga.

Nesse caso, vg≠vp e dizemos que o meio e dispersivo.

Alguns exemplos de meios dispersivo: vidro ou água para as ondas luminosas.

Normalmente, e a velocidade de grupo que vista pela sua observadores.

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Nos exemplos anteriores vimos que é possível construir um pacote de ondas de largura Δx e duração Δt usando ondas senoidais com números de onda dentro de um intervalo de números de onda Δk e frequências Δ!.

Os intervalos de Δk e Δ! das ondas harmônicas necessárias para formar um pacote de ondas dependem da extensão e duração do pulso:

• É possível mostrar que se a extensão do pulso Δx é pequena, o pacote de onda deve ocupar um grande intervalo de números de onda Δk.

• Da mesma forma, se a duração do pulso Δt é pequena, o pacote deve ocupar um grande intervalo de frequências Δ!.

Em geral, é possível mostrar (análise de Fourier) que para qualquer pacote de ondas valem as relações:

Estas expressões são denominadas relações de indeterminação clássicas.

Relações de indeterminação clássicas.

�k�x � 1

2�!�t � 1

2

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No caso de ondas mecânicas, a grandeza que ondula é o deslocamento y(x,t) de um ponto do sistema em cada ponto x no tempo t. No caso de ondas sonoras, a grandeza que ondula é a pressão P(x,t).

No caso das ondas de matéria que está ondulando e uma grandeza ψ(x,t), chamada função de onda, que está relacionada com a probabilidade de observar a partícula em cada ponto x do espaço no instante t.

Considere, por exemplo, uma onda associada a um elétron com uma única frequência f e um único comprimento de onda #.

Uma onda desse tipo pode ser representada de várias formas diferentes, por exemplo:

Pacotes de ondas de matéria

5-3 Wave Packets 209

SOLUTIONSince V � 2Pf, then $V � 2P$f � 2P(0.01) rad/s and

$t � 1�$V � 1�2P�0.01� $t � 16 s

Thus, the frequency must be measured for about 16 s if the reading is to be accurate to 0.01 Hz and the display cannot be updated more often than once every 16 seconds.

Questions

4. Which is more important for communication, the group velocity or the phase velocity?

5. What are $��x and $k for a purely harmonic wave of a single frequency and wavelength?

Particle Wave PacketsThe quantity analogous to the displacement y(x, t) for waves on a string, to the pres-sure P(x, t) for a sound wave, or to the electric field J�x, t� for electromagnetic waves is called the wave function for particles and is usually designated #�x, t�. It is #�x, t� that we will relate to the probability of finding the particle and, as we alerted you ear-lier, it is the probability that waves. Consider, for example, an electron wave consist-ing of a single frequency and wavelength; we could represent such a wave by any of the following, exactly as we did the classical wave: #(x, t) � A cos(kx � Vt), #(x, t) � A sin(kx � Vt), or #�x, t��A ei�kx�Vt�.

The phase velocity for this wave is given by

vp � f L � �E�h� �h�p� � E�pwhere we have used the de Broglie relations for the wavelength and frequency. Using the nonrelativistic expression for the energy of a particle moving in free space (i.e., no potential energy) with no forces acting on it,

E �12

mv2 �p2

2m

we see that the phase velocity is

vp � E�p � �p2�2m� �p � p�2m � v�2that is, the phase velocity of the wave is half the velocity of an electron with momen-tum p. The phase velocity does not equal the particle velocity. Moreover, a wave of a single frequency and wavelength is not localized but is spread throughout space, which makes it difficult to see how the particle and wave properties of the electron could be related. Thus, for the electron to have the particle property of being local-ized, the matter waves of the electron must also be limited in spatial extent—that is, realistically, #�x, t� must be a wave packet containing many more than one wave number k and frequency V. It is the wave packet #�x, t� that we expect to move at a group velocity equal to the particle velocity, which we will show below is indeed the case. The particle, if observed, we will expect to find somewhere within the spatial extent of the wave packet #�x, t�, precisely where within being the subject of the next section.

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 209 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 209

SOLUTIONSince V � 2Pf, then $V � 2P$f � 2P(0.01) rad/s and

$t � 1�$V � 1�2P�0.01� $t � 16 s

Thus, the frequency must be measured for about 16 s if the reading is to be accurate to 0.01 Hz and the display cannot be updated more often than once every 16 seconds.

Questions

4. Which is more important for communication, the group velocity or the phase velocity?

5. What are $��x and $k for a purely harmonic wave of a single frequency and wavelength?

Particle Wave PacketsThe quantity analogous to the displacement y(x, t) for waves on a string, to the pres-sure P(x, t) for a sound wave, or to the electric field J�x, t� for electromagnetic waves is called the wave function for particles and is usually designated #�x, t�. It is #�x, t� that we will relate to the probability of finding the particle and, as we alerted you ear-lier, it is the probability that waves. Consider, for example, an electron wave consist-ing of a single frequency and wavelength; we could represent such a wave by any of the following, exactly as we did the classical wave: #(x, t) � A cos(kx � Vt), #(x, t) � A sin(kx � Vt), or #�x, t��A ei�kx�Vt�.

The phase velocity for this wave is given by

vp � f L � �E�h� �h�p� � E�pwhere we have used the de Broglie relations for the wavelength and frequency. Using the nonrelativistic expression for the energy of a particle moving in free space (i.e., no potential energy) with no forces acting on it,

E �12

mv2 �p2

2m

we see that the phase velocity is

vp � E�p � �p2�2m� �p � p�2m � v�2that is, the phase velocity of the wave is half the velocity of an electron with momen-tum p. The phase velocity does not equal the particle velocity. Moreover, a wave of a single frequency and wavelength is not localized but is spread throughout space, which makes it difficult to see how the particle and wave properties of the electron could be related. Thus, for the electron to have the particle property of being local-ized, the matter waves of the electron must also be limited in spatial extent—that is, realistically, #�x, t� must be a wave packet containing many more than one wave number k and frequency V. It is the wave packet #�x, t� that we expect to move at a group velocity equal to the particle velocity, which we will show below is indeed the case. The particle, if observed, we will expect to find somewhere within the spatial extent of the wave packet #�x, t�, precisely where within being the subject of the next section.

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 209 8/22/11 11:40 AM

19

Page 20: O princípio de incerteza - WordPress.comAs ondas clássicas são soluções da equação de onda clássica Uma classe importante de ondas clássicas são as ondas harmônicas de amplitude

A velocidade de fase desta onda é dada por

onde usamos as relações de de Broglie para f e #.

No caso de uma partícula que esteja se movendo no espaço vazio, longe de outras partículas, a única energia é a energia cinética, que no caso não relativístico é dada por

Portanto, a velocidade de fase é

Vemos que a velocidade de fase é igual à metade da velocidade do elétron ( vp ≠ v !).

5-3 Wave Packets 209

SOLUTIONSince V � 2Pf, then $V � 2P$f � 2P(0.01) rad/s and

$t � 1�$V � 1�2P�0.01� $t � 16 s

Thus, the frequency must be measured for about 16 s if the reading is to be accurate to 0.01 Hz and the display cannot be updated more often than once every 16 seconds.

Questions

4. Which is more important for communication, the group velocity or the phase velocity?

5. What are $��x and $k for a purely harmonic wave of a single frequency and wavelength?

Particle Wave PacketsThe quantity analogous to the displacement y(x, t) for waves on a string, to the pres-sure P(x, t) for a sound wave, or to the electric field J�x, t� for electromagnetic waves is called the wave function for particles and is usually designated #�x, t�. It is #�x, t� that we will relate to the probability of finding the particle and, as we alerted you ear-lier, it is the probability that waves. Consider, for example, an electron wave consist-ing of a single frequency and wavelength; we could represent such a wave by any of the following, exactly as we did the classical wave: #(x, t) � A cos(kx � Vt), #(x, t) � A sin(kx � Vt), or #�x, t��A ei�kx�Vt�.

The phase velocity for this wave is given by

vp � f L � �E�h� �h�p� � E�pwhere we have used the de Broglie relations for the wavelength and frequency. Using the nonrelativistic expression for the energy of a particle moving in free space (i.e., no potential energy) with no forces acting on it,

E �12

mv2 �p2

2m

we see that the phase velocity is

vp � E�p � �p2�2m� �p � p�2m � v�2that is, the phase velocity of the wave is half the velocity of an electron with momen-tum p. The phase velocity does not equal the particle velocity. Moreover, a wave of a single frequency and wavelength is not localized but is spread throughout space, which makes it difficult to see how the particle and wave properties of the electron could be related. Thus, for the electron to have the particle property of being local-ized, the matter waves of the electron must also be limited in spatial extent—that is, realistically, #�x, t� must be a wave packet containing many more than one wave number k and frequency V. It is the wave packet #�x, t� that we expect to move at a group velocity equal to the particle velocity, which we will show below is indeed the case. The particle, if observed, we will expect to find somewhere within the spatial extent of the wave packet #�x, t�, precisely where within being the subject of the next section.

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 209 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 209

SOLUTIONSince V � 2Pf, then $V � 2P$f � 2P(0.01) rad/s and

$t � 1�$V � 1�2P�0.01� $t � 16 s

Thus, the frequency must be measured for about 16 s if the reading is to be accurate to 0.01 Hz and the display cannot be updated more often than once every 16 seconds.

Questions

4. Which is more important for communication, the group velocity or the phase velocity?

5. What are $��x and $k for a purely harmonic wave of a single frequency and wavelength?

Particle Wave PacketsThe quantity analogous to the displacement y(x, t) for waves on a string, to the pres-sure P(x, t) for a sound wave, or to the electric field J�x, t� for electromagnetic waves is called the wave function for particles and is usually designated #�x, t�. It is #�x, t� that we will relate to the probability of finding the particle and, as we alerted you ear-lier, it is the probability that waves. Consider, for example, an electron wave consist-ing of a single frequency and wavelength; we could represent such a wave by any of the following, exactly as we did the classical wave: #(x, t) � A cos(kx � Vt), #(x, t) � A sin(kx � Vt), or #�x, t��A ei�kx�Vt�.

The phase velocity for this wave is given by

vp � f L � �E�h� �h�p� � E�pwhere we have used the de Broglie relations for the wavelength and frequency. Using the nonrelativistic expression for the energy of a particle moving in free space (i.e., no potential energy) with no forces acting on it,

E �12

mv2 �p2

2m

we see that the phase velocity is

vp � E�p � �p2�2m� �p � p�2m � v�2that is, the phase velocity of the wave is half the velocity of an electron with momen-tum p. The phase velocity does not equal the particle velocity. Moreover, a wave of a single frequency and wavelength is not localized but is spread throughout space, which makes it difficult to see how the particle and wave properties of the electron could be related. Thus, for the electron to have the particle property of being local-ized, the matter waves of the electron must also be limited in spatial extent—that is, realistically, #�x, t� must be a wave packet containing many more than one wave number k and frequency V. It is the wave packet #�x, t� that we expect to move at a group velocity equal to the particle velocity, which we will show below is indeed the case. The particle, if observed, we will expect to find somewhere within the spatial extent of the wave packet #�x, t�, precisely where within being the subject of the next section.

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 209 8/22/11 11:40 AM

5-3 Wave Packets 209

SOLUTIONSince V � 2Pf, then $V � 2P$f � 2P(0.01) rad/s and

$t � 1�$V � 1�2P�0.01� $t � 16 s

Thus, the frequency must be measured for about 16 s if the reading is to be accurate to 0.01 Hz and the display cannot be updated more often than once every 16 seconds.

Questions

4. Which is more important for communication, the group velocity or the phase velocity?

5. What are $��x and $k for a purely harmonic wave of a single frequency and wavelength?

Particle Wave PacketsThe quantity analogous to the displacement y(x, t) for waves on a string, to the pres-sure P(x, t) for a sound wave, or to the electric field J�x, t� for electromagnetic waves is called the wave function for particles and is usually designated #�x, t�. It is #�x, t� that we will relate to the probability of finding the particle and, as we alerted you ear-lier, it is the probability that waves. Consider, for example, an electron wave consist-ing of a single frequency and wavelength; we could represent such a wave by any of the following, exactly as we did the classical wave: #(x, t) � A cos(kx � Vt), #(x, t) � A sin(kx � Vt), or #�x, t��A ei�kx�Vt�.

The phase velocity for this wave is given by

vp � f L � �E�h� �h�p� � E�pwhere we have used the de Broglie relations for the wavelength and frequency. Using the nonrelativistic expression for the energy of a particle moving in free space (i.e., no potential energy) with no forces acting on it,

E �12

mv2 �p2

2m

we see that the phase velocity is

vp � E�p � �p2�2m� �p � p�2m � v�2that is, the phase velocity of the wave is half the velocity of an electron with momen-tum p. The phase velocity does not equal the particle velocity. Moreover, a wave of a single frequency and wavelength is not localized but is spread throughout space, which makes it difficult to see how the particle and wave properties of the electron could be related. Thus, for the electron to have the particle property of being local-ized, the matter waves of the electron must also be limited in spatial extent—that is, realistically, #�x, t� must be a wave packet containing many more than one wave number k and frequency V. It is the wave packet #�x, t� that we expect to move at a group velocity equal to the particle velocity, which we will show below is indeed the case. The particle, if observed, we will expect to find somewhere within the spatial extent of the wave packet #�x, t�, precisely where within being the subject of the next section.

TIPLER_05_193-228hr.indd 209 8/22/11 11:40 AM

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Agora vamos calcular a velocidade de grupo para um pacote de ondas de matéria. Para isso escrevemos:

A velocidade de grupo é dada por:

Usando E = p2/2m, temos:

Portanto, o pacote de ondas ψ(x,t) se propaga com a velocidade do elétron!

E = hf =h!

2⇡ou E = ~!

p =h

�=

h

2⇡/k=

hk

2⇡ou p = ~k

vg =d!

dk=

dE/~dp/~ =

dE

dp

vg =dE

dp=

p2/(2m)

dp=

p

m=

mv

m= v

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Consideremos a interferência de luz monocromática por uma fenda única.

Usamos um tubo fotomultiplicador móvel, contamos os fótons que chegam a cada posição, e fazemos um gráfico da distribuição das intensidades.

Interpretação probabilística da função de onda

Capítulo 35 — Interferência 97

Figura 35.5 (a) Experiência de Young para mostrar a interferência da luz que passa através de duas fendas. Um padrão de áreas brilhantes e escuras aparece sobre a tela (veja a Figura 35.6). (b) Análise geométrica da experiência de Young. No caso mostrado aqui, r2 > r1, e tanto y quanto u são positivos. Se o ponto P estiver do outro lado do centro da tela, r2 < r1, e tanto y quanto u são negativos. (c) Geometria aproximada quando a distância R é muito maior que a distância d entre as fendas.

P

Tela

y

S1

S2

S0

Luz monocromática

(a) Interferência de ondas luminosas passando por duas fendas

Franjas brilhantes nas quais as frentes de onda chegam em fase e interferem construtivamente

Em situações reais, a distância R até a tela costuma ser muito maior que a distância d entre as fendas...

... então, podemos considerar os raios paralelos, o que implica que a diferença entre os caminhos é simplesmente r2 - r1 = d senu.

Frentes de onda coerentes vindas das duas fendas

Franjas escuras nas quais as frentes de onda chegam fora de fase e interferem destrutivamente

Frentes de onda cilíndricas

y

d senu

S1

S2

dr2

r1

R

Tela

(b) Geometria real (vista de lado).

u

u r2

r1

(c) Geometria aproximada

S1

S2

d

Para a tela

d senu

u

a fonte ideal indicada na Figura 35.1. (Nas versões modernas dessa experiência, utiliza-se um laser como fonte de luz coerente, e não é necessário usar a fenda S0.) A luz proveniente da fenda S0 incide sobre um anteparo com outras duas fendas muito estreitas S1 e S2, cada uma com larguras da ordem de 1 mm e separadas por uma distância aproximadamente igual a dezenas ou centenas de mm. Frentes de onda cilíndricas emanam da fenda S0 e incidem em fase sobre as fendas S1 e S2 porque elas percorrem a mesma distância partindo de S0. As ondas que emergem de S1 e S2 estão, portanto, sempre em fase, de modo que S1 e S2 são fontes coerentes. A interferência das ondas provenientes de S1 e S2 produz uma configuração no espaço semelhante ao que ocorre no lado direito das fontes mostradas nas figuras 35.2a e 35.3.

Para visualizar a figura de interferência, coloca-se uma tela de modo que as ondas provenientes de S1 e S2 incidam sobre ela (Figura 35.5b). A tela será mais fortemente iluminada no ponto P, no qual as ondas luminosas provenientes das fendas interferem construtivamente, e será mais escura nos pontos onde a interfe-rência é destrutiva.

Para simplificar a análise da experiência de Young, consideramos a distância R entre o plano das fendas e a tela muito maior que a distância d entre as fendas, de modo que as linhas que ligam S1 e S2 com o ponto P são aproximadamente parale-las, como indica a Figura 35.5c. Isso costuma ser verdade no caso de experiências feitas com a luz; a distância típica entre as fendas é da ordem de alguns milímetros, ao passo que a distância entre a tela e as fendas costuma ser da ordem de um metro. Portanto, a diferença de caminho é dada por

r2 ! r1 " d sen u (35.3)

onde u é o ângulo entre uma das retas traçadas a partir de uma das fendas (linha grossa inclinada na Figura 35.5c) e a direção da normal ao plano das fendas (linha fina na horizontal).

Book_SEARS_Vol4.indb 97 16/12/15 5:42 PM

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Se a intensidade é reduzida e apenas alguns fótons por segundo passam através das fendas → registramos uma série discreta de colisões, cada uma representando um único fóton.

Mas, ao longo do tempo as colisões acumuladas formam a figura de difração esperada para uma onda.

Devemos encarar essa figura como uma distribuição estatística que nos informa quantos fótons, na média, atingem cada local.

De modo equivalente, a figura nos diz a probabilidade de que um fóton individual atinja um determinado ponto.

Capítulo 38 — Fótons: ondas de luz se comportando como partículas 217

Verificamos que, na média, a distribuição dos fótons concorda com nossas previ-sões da Seção 36.3. Em pontos correspondentes aos máximos da figura de difração contamos muitos fótons, nos mínimos não contamos quase nenhum fóton, e assim por diante. O gráfico das contagens nos diversos pontos fornece a mesma figura de difração prevista na Equação 36.7.

Suponha agora que a intensidade seja reduzida a tal ponto que somente alguns fótons por segundo passem através da fenda. Assim, registramos uma série discreta de colisões, cada uma representando um único fóton. Como não há uma maneira de prever o local exato em que um único fóton vai colidir, ao longo do tempo as colisões acumuladas formam uma figura de difração familiar, o que é esperado para uma onda. Para reconciliar a descrição ondulatória com a descrição corpus-cular da figura de difração, devemos encarar essa figura como uma distribuição estatística que nos informa quantos fótons, na média, atingem cada local. De modo equivalente, a figura nos diz a probabilidade de que um fóton individual atinja um determinado ponto. Se fizermos nosso feixe de luz brilhar em um dispositivo de fenda dupla, obtemos um resultado similar (Figura 38.16). Novamente não é possível prever o local exato onde podemos encontrar um determinado fóton; a figura de interferência é uma distribuição estatística.

Como o princípio da complementaridade se aplica a essas experiências de inter-ferência e difração? A descrição ondulatória, e não a descrição corpuscular, explica as experiências da fenda única e da fenda dupla. Porém a descrição corpuscular, e não a descrição ondulatória, explica como um detector fotomultiplicador pode ser usado para construir a figura de interferência mediante a adição de pacotes discretos de energia. As duas descrições completam nossa compreensão dos resultados. Por exemplo, suponha que estejamos considerando um fóton individual e perguntamos como ele sabe “qual caminho deve seguir” quando passa pela fenda. Essa pergunta se parece com um enigma, isso porque é formulada admitindo-se que a luz seja uma partícula. É a natureza ondulatória da luz, e não sua natureza corpuscular, que determina a distribuição dos fótons. Reciprocamente, o fato de que o fotomultipli-cador detecta luz fraca como uma sequência de “pontos” individuais não pode ser explicado em termos ondulatórios.

Probabilidade e incerteza Embora os fótons possuam energia e momento linear, são muito diferentes do

modelo corpuscular que usamos para a mecânica newtoniana nos capítulos de 4 a 8. O modelo de partícula newtoniano trata um objeto como um ponto que possui massa. Podemos descrever a localização e o estado do movimento como uma par-tícula em qualquer instante usando três coordenadas espaciais e três componentes do momento linear e, assim, podemos prever o movimento da partícula no futuro. No entanto, esse modelo não funciona de forma alguma para fótons: simplesmente não podemos tratar um fóton como um objeto pontual. Isso porque existem limi-tações fundamentais quanto à precisão com que podemos determinar a posição e o momento linear de um fóton simultaneamente. (No Capítulo 39 descobriremos que as ideias não newtonianas que desenvolvemos para os fótons nesta seção também se aplicam a partículas como os elétrons.)

Para obter mais esclarecimentos a respeito do problema de medirmos a posição e o momento linear de um fóton simultaneamente, vamos olhar novamente na difração da luz em uma fenda única.

Suponha que o comprimento de onda l seja muito menor que a largura a da fenda (Figura 38.17). Em seguida, a maioria (85%) dos fótons entra na parte mais ao centro da figura de difração e o restante vai para as outras partes da figura. Usamos u1 para designar o ângulo entre o ponto mais ao centro e o primeiro ponto mínimo da figura. Usando a Equação 36.2 com m ! 1, descobrimos que u1 é dado por sen u1 ! l/a. Uma vez que assumimos l << a, segue-se que u1 é muito pequeno, e sen u1 é quase igual a u1 (em radianos), e

Figura 38.16 Estas imagens registram as posições em que fótons individuais incidem na tela em uma experiência de interferência de fenda dupla. À medida que mais fótons atingem a tela, começamos a reconhecer uma figura de interferência.

Após 21 fótons atingirem a tela

Após 1.000 fótons atingirem a tela

Após 10.000 fótons atingirem a tela

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A mesma experiência pode ser realizada usando elétrons ou outras partículas. Aparece exatamente o mesmo tipo de figura de interferência que vimos para os fótons!!!

Não é possível prever o local exato onde podemos encontrar um determinado elétron; a figura de interferência é uma distribuição estatística.

264 Física IV

ção com o comprimento de onda da partícula de De Broglie —, não podemos mais usar a descrição newtoniana. Certamente, nenhuma partícula newtoniana sofreria difração como os elétrons sofrem (Seção 39.1).

Para demonstrar exatamente como o comportamento da matéria pode ser não newtoniano, vamos examinar uma experiência envolvendo a interferência de fenda dupla dos elétrons (Figura 39.34 ). Apontamos um feixe de elétrons para duas fen-das paralelas, como fizemos para a luz na Seção 38.4. (A experiência com elétrons precisa ser feita no vácuo, de modo que os elétrons não colidam com as moléculas de ar.) Que tipo de figura aparece no detector no outro lado das fendas? A resposta é: exatamente o mesmo tipo de figura de interferência que vimos para os fótons na Seção 38.4! Além do mais, o princípio da complementaridade, que apresentamos na Seção 38.4, nos diz que não podemos aplicar os modelos de onda e partícula si-multaneamente para descrever qualquer elemento isolado dessa experiência. Assim, não podemos prever exatamente onde na figura (um fenômeno ondulatório) qual-quer elétron individual (uma partícula) pousará. Nem sequer podemos perguntar por qual fenda um elétron individual passa. Se tentarmos ver para onde os elétrons estavam indo iluminando-os — ou seja, espalhando fótons a partir deles —, os elétrons recuariam, o que modificaria seus movimentos, de modo que a figura de interferência de fenda dupla não apareceria.

Figura 39.34 (a) Uma experiência de interferência de fenda dupla. (b) A figura de interferência após 28, 1.000 e 10.000 elétrons.

(a) (b)

Feixe de elétrons (vácuo)

Fenda 1

Fenda 2

Detector de elétrons Figura de interferência dos elétrons

Após 28 elétrons

Após 1.000 elétrons

Após 10.000 elétrons

Gráfico mostra o número de elétrons atingindo cada região do detector.

ATENÇÃO Interferência de elétrons em fenda dupla não é interferência entre dois elétrons Um erro de conceito comum é que o padrão na Figura 39.34b se deve à inter-ferência entre duas ondas de elétrons, cada uma representando um elétron que passa por uma fenda. Para mostrar que esse não é o caso, podemos enviar apenas um elétron de cada vez através do dispositivo. Não faz diferença; acabamos com a mesma figura de interferência. De certa forma, cada onda de elétrons interfere consigo mesma.

Os princípios da incerteza de Heisenberg para a matériaAssim como os elétrons e os fótons mostram o mesmo comportamento em uma

experiência de interferência de fenda dupla, os elétrons e outras formas de matéria obedecem aos mesmos princípios de incerteza de Heisenberg que os fótons:

!x !px " U/2 !y !py " U/2 (Princípio da incerteza de Heisenberg !z pz " U/2 para posição e momento linear) (39.29)

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ATENÇÃO !!! Interferência de elétrons em fenda dupla não é interferência entre dois elétrons.

Um erro de conceito comum é que o padrão na Figura se deve à interferência entre duas ondas de elétrons, cada uma representando um elétron que passa por uma fenda.

Para mostrar que esse não é o caso, podemos enviar apenas um elétron de cada vez através do dispositivo. Não faz diferença; acabamos com a mesma figura de interferência. De certa forma, cada onda de elétrons interfere consigo mesma.

Não tem sentido perguntar por qual fenda um elétron individual passa.

Se tentarmos ver para onde os elétrons estavam indo iluminando-os — ou seja, espalhando fótons a partir deles —, os elétrons recuariam, o que modificaria seus movimentos, de modo que a figura de interferência de fenda dupla não apareceria.

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Significado da função de onda

Na teoria ondulatória dos elétrons, a onda de um único elétron é descrita por uma função de onda ψ(x,t).

A amplitude de ψ em qualquer ponto, está relacionada com a probabilidade de que a partícula seja encontrada nesse ponto.

A grandeza |ψ|2 é proporcional à probabilidade de que um elétron seja encontrado em uma certa região do espaço

Em geral, a função de onda tem parte real e parte imaginária, |ψ|2 = ψ*ψ é o produto da função ψ pelo seu complexo conjugado ψ*.

Em uma dimensão, |ψ(x,t)|2 dx é a probabilidade de que um elétron seja encontrado no intervalo dx em torno da posição x no instante t.

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Princípio de incerteza de Heisenberg

A relações de incerteza para as ondas de matéria, são análogas às relações de indeterminação clássicas.

Consideremos um pacote de ondas ψ(x,t) que representa um elétron.

A posição mais provável do elétron é o valor de x para o qual a |ψ(x,t)|2 é máxima.

Como ψ(x,t) é diferente de zero para vários valores de x, há uma incerteza no valor da posição do elétron.

Isso significa que, se fizermos uma série de medidas de posição em elétrons idênticos (elétrons com a mesma função de onda), nem sempre obteremos o mesmo resultado.

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212 Chapter 5 The Wavelike Properties of Particles

|�(x, y, t )|2

y

t = 0

t = �t

t = 2�t

x

|�(x, y, t)|2

y x

|�(x, y, t)|2

y x

It is not necessary to use light waves to produce an interference pattern. Such pat-terns can be produced with electrons and other particles as well. In the wave theory of electrons the de Broglie wave of a single electron is described by a wave function #. The amplitude of # at any point is related to the probability of finding the particle at that point. In analogy with foregoing interpretation of J2, the quantity U # U 2 is proportional to the probability of detecting an electron in a unit volume, where U # U 2 , ##, the function #* being the complex conjugate of #. In one dimension, U # U 2

dx is the probability of an electron being in the interval dx10 (see Figure 5-19.) If we call this probability P(x)dx, where P(x) is the probability distribution function, we have

P�x�dx � U # U 2 dx 5-23

In the next chapter we will more thoroughly discuss the amplitudes of matter waves associated with particles, in particular developing the mathematical system for com-puting the amplitudes and probabilities in various situations. The uneasiness that you may feel at this point regarding the fact that we have not given a precise physical interpretation to the amplitude of the de Broglie matter wave can be attributed in part to the complex nature of the wave amplitude; that is, it is in general a complex func-tion with a real part and an imaginary part, the latter proportional to i � ��1�1�2. We cannot directly measure or physically interpret complex numbers in our world of

FIGURE 5-19 A three-dimensional wave packet representing a particle moving along the x axis. Thedot indicates the position of a classical particle. Note that the packet spreads out in the x and y directions. This spreading is due to dispersion, resulting from the fact that the phase velocity of the individual waves making up the packet depends on the wavelength of the waves. (For a four-dimensional packet—not shown—spreading would also occur in the z direction.)

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De fato, a função de distribuição para os resultados dessas medidas será dada por |ψ(x, t)|2 .

• Se o pacote de ondas for muito estreito, a incerteza na posição será pequena.

• No entanto, um pacote de ondas estreito deve conter uma ampla gama de números de onda k. Como p = ħk, o pacote deve conter uma ampla gama de valores de momento.

Pelas relações de indeterminação clássicas sabemos que:

Usando as relações de de Broglie na forma E=ħ! e p=ħk temos ΔE=ħΔ! e Δp=ħΔk, portanto:

Estas são as relações de incerteza de Heisenberg (1927).

�k�x � 1

2�!�t � 1

2

�p�x � ~2

�E�t � ~2

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As relações de incerteza de Heisenberg podem ser interpretadas como segue:

• Se Δx é o desvio padrão das medidas de posição e Δp é o desvio padrão das medidas de momento, o produto Δx Δp tem um valor mínimo de ħ/2 quando as duas distribuições são gaussianas.

• Em qualquer outro caso Δx Δp deve ser maior que ħ/2.

• Isto significa que não podemos conhecer simultaneamente a posição e o momento de uma partícula com precisão arbitrária.

• Esta limitação não se deve a qualquer problema técnico na concepção dos equipamentos de medição que possa ser resolvida usando instrumentos melhores. Pelo contrário, trata-se de uma limitação física devido à natureza onda-partícula tanto da matéria quanto da luz.

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