Alcedo atthis -- (Linnaeus, 1758)ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- CORACIIFORMES -- ALCEDINIDAECommon names: Common Kingfisher; European Kingfisher; Kingfisher; Martin-pêcheur d'Europe

European Red List AssessmentEuropean Red List Status

VU -- Vulnerable, (IUCN version 3.1)

Assessment InformationYear published: 2015Date assessed: 2015-03-31Assessor(s): BirdLife InternationalReviewer(s): Symes, A.Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L.Assessment RationaleEuropean regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

This widespread kingfisher is undergoing rapid population declines across the European part of its extremely large global range. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable under Criterion A in both Europe and the EU27.

OccurrenceCountries/Territories of OccurrenceNative:Albania; Andorra; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Ireland, Rep. of; Italy; Latvia; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malta; Moldova; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United Kingdom; Gibraltar (to UK)

PopulationThe European population is estimated at 97,500-167,000 pairs, which equates to 195,000-334,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 68,200-115,000 pairs, which equates to 136,000-229,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

TrendIn Europe and the EU27 the population size is estimated to be decreasing by 30-49% in 13.2 years (three generations). For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

Habitats and EcologyThis species prefers still or gently flowing water with plenty of small fish, and with reeds, rushes or shrubs on the banks for perches. Streams, small rivers, canals and ditches are favoured to open waterbodies, but it also uses lakes, ponds and flooded gravel pits. In winter it becomes more coastal, also using estuaries, harbours and rocky seashores. Egg-laying occurs from March to July with laying time peaking in April in Britain and in May in Sweden. Suitable banks for nesting required in breeding season, but nest-sites can be over 250 m from foraging waters and can occur infrequently in walls, rotten tree stumps, concrete tunnels in canal banks, terrestrial termitarium, or in the burrow of Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) or water vole (Arvicola terrestris). Clutch size can be from three to ten eggs but typically six or seven. In Europe, the main prey is fish but will also consume aquatic insects, flies (Diptera), butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), amphibians (Rana), crayfish (Astacus), prawns (Palaemon), shrimps (Gammarus) and isopods in winter. Very occasionally it feeds on berries (Rubus, Sambucus) and stems of reed (Phragmites). In areas where freezing conditions occur in winter, it regularly migrates south, but generally stays within the species's breeding range. Southern populations are usually sedentary (Woodall 2001).

Habitats & AltitudeHabitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence

Artificial/Aquatic - Canals and Drainage Channels, Ditches suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Canals and Drainage Channels, Ditches suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Excavations (open) suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Excavations (open) suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Ponds (below ha) suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Ponds (below ha) suitable non-breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over ha) suitable breedingArtificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over ha) suitable non-breedingArtificial/Terrestrial - Rural Gardens suitable breedingArtificial/Terrestrial - Rural Gardens suitable non-breedingArtificial/Terrestrial - Urban Areas suitable non-breedingMarine Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline suitable non-breedingMarine Intertidal - Tidepools suitable non-breedingMarine Neritic - Estuaries suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable breedingWetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) major breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) major non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) major breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) major non-breedingAltitude Occasional altitudinal limits

ThreatsHard winters are thought to be a significant threat to this species (Tucker and Heath 1994), particularly northern populations (Woodall 2001). Severe winters in 1961–1962 and 1962–1963 caused the species to be almost entirely extirpated from parts of Europe. Long term declines are thought to be due to chemical and biological river pollution. The two main sources of this are most likely industrial waste disposal and agricultural chemical runoff. Canalization of streams and clearance of emergent vegetation to improve drainage result in loss of nesting and feeding habitat and declines in fish numbers (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is also at risk locally from persecution to protect fish stocks (Woodall 2001).Threats & Impacts

Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and StressesBiological resource use

Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals (persecution/control)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Climate change & severe weather

Temperature extremes

Timing Scope Severity ImpactPast, Likely to Return

Majority (50-90%) Very Rapid Declines Past Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Natural system modifications

Other ecosystem modifications

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesEcosystem conversion; Indirect ecosystem effects

Pollution Herbicides and pesticides

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesIndirect ecosystem effects

Threats & ImpactsThreat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses

Pollution Industrial & military effluents (type unknown/unrecorded)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesIndirect ecosystem effects

ConservationConservation Actions UnderwayBern Convention Appendix II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. There are no known current conservation measures for this species.

Conservation Actions ProposedPreservation of rivers and streams must be mediated through industry, agriculture and water authorities (Tucker and Heath 1994). Research to investigate the importance of individual threats and mitigation measures against these is also important.

BibliographyHagemeijer, W.J.M. and Blair, M.J. 1997. The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds: Their Distribution and Abundance. T and A D Poyser, London.Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F. 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. BirdLife Conservation Series no. 3, BirdLife International, Cambridge.Woodall, P.F. 2001. Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/55801 on 2 March 2015).

Map (see overleaf)