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'The Liberal Project': 'Project O Liberal ": Globalization, Modernity and Identity Modernidade,

Globalização e Identidade Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI※ ※ Abstract Abstrato This article

argues that globalization, or rather the globalization of modernity, Este artigo argumenta que a

globalização, ou melhor, a globalização da modernidade, can be conceived of as a 'liberalproject.' pode ser concebida como um "projeto liberal." At the heart of the 'liberal project' is

the No coração do "projeto liberal" é o creation of a global civil society based upon universal

values: human rights and criação de uma sociedade civil global baseada em valores universais:

os direitos humanos e the rule of law. o Estado de Direito. However, a 'liberal' global civil

society requires, as a precondition No entanto, a sociedade global um 'liberal' civil exige, como

condição prévia for its existence, the erasure of difference: the creation of 'unencumbered'

para a sua existência, o apagamento da diferença: a criação de 'livre' individuals out of

communal identities and the universalization of liberal indivíduos fora de identidades

comunitárias ea universalização da liberal democracy and capitalism. democracia e

capitalismo. Historically, a product of the European Historicamente, um produto da Europeia

Enlightenment, the 'liberal project' has taken the form of colonialism, Iluminismo, o "projeto

liberal" tomou a forma de colonialismo, imperialism and genocide in the non-European world,

in the process imperialismo e genocídio no mundo não-europeu, no processo compromising its

central ideal of universal freedom. comprometer a sua central ideal de liberdade universal.

However, it will be argued No entanto, será discutido that, in the light of the present ethno-

religious revival, this 'liberal' project has que, à luz do renascimento étnico-religioso presente,

este projecto "liberal" tem failed. falhou. Three different but interrelated sets of explanations

help account for its Três conjuntos diferentes, mas inter-relacionados de explicações ajudar a

explicar a sua failure to transform the world in the image of the West: the incommensurabilityincapacidade de transformar o mundo à imagem do Ocidente: a incomensurabilidade of

cultural value systems, the dynamism of modernity and the distorting effects de sistemas de

valores culturais, o dinamismo da modernidade e os efeitos distorcivos of pre-modern

practices which make multiple non-western modernities possible. de pré-modernas práticas

que fazem múltiplas modernidades não ocidentais possível. Introduction Introdução This

article will examine the impact of globalization upon collective identities. Este artigo analisará

o impacto da globalização sobre as identidades coletivas. Globalization in a conventional sense

refers to the globalization of liberal A globalização no sentido convencional refere-se à

globalização liberal capitalist modernity. modernidade capitalista. Following the collapse of

Stalinism in the 1990s, it has been Após o colapso do stalinismo na década de 1990, tem sidoargued by neo-liberals that liberal capitalist modernity remains the only viable argumentado

por neo-liberais que a modernidade capitalista liberal continua a ser a única viável mode of

economic, social and political organization. modo de organização econômica, social e político.

Furthermore, although most Mais Além disso, embora liberals acknowledge that a global

political identity is at best embryonic, or liberais reconhecem que uma identidade política

global é, na melhor das embrionárias, ou（ 37） 37 (37) 37※ ※ Associate Professor,

College of International Relations, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, Japan. Professor Associado,

Faculdade de Relações Internacionais, Universidade Ritsumeikan, Kyoto, Japão. © The

International Studies Association of Ritsumeikan University: © O International StudiesAssociation de Ritsumeikan University: Ritsumeikan Annual Review of International Studies,

7/31/2019 Page 1 Página 1


2003. Ritsumeikan Annual Review of International Studies, 2003. ISSN 1347-8214. ISSN 1347-

8214. Vol.2, pp. 37-57 Vol.2, pp 37-57

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presently limited to the developed North, they insist that globalization will atualmente

limitada ao Norte desenvolvido, eles insistem que a globalização inevitably lead to the

dissemination of a global political cultural identity and the inevitavelmente levar à

disseminação de uma identidade política cultural global e creation of a global civil society.

criação de uma sociedade civil global. This will be referred to as 'liberal' global civil Isso vai ser

referido como 'liberal' civil global society. sociedade. The liberal conception of a global civil

society refers to a society where 'social A concepção liberal de uma sociedade civil global

refere-se a uma sociedade onde "social life (the public sphere) is modelled on exchange and

persons meet in order to vida (esfera pública) é modelada na troca e pessoas a fim de atenderarbitrate their pre-existing interests which have been “self -authored” (chosen in arbitrar seus

interesses pré-existentes que foram "auto-autoria" (escolhido em the private sphere)'

(Hopgood 2000:1). a esfera privada) "(Hopgood 2000:1). David Jacobsen speaks for many

when he David Jacobsen fala por muitos quando ele writes that what 'we are witnessing is the

development of a global (if still limited escreve que o que estamos testemunhando é o

desenvolvimento de um mercado global (se ainda limitado to the northern hemisphere)

political culture based on human rights - which is para o hemisfério norte) cultura política

baseada nos direitos humanos - o que é demarcated (in principle) in non-territorial terms and,

in its domain, is distinct demarcada (em princípio) em termos não-territoriais e, no seu

domínio, é diferente from territorial states (the local political authorities)' (Jacobson2001:177). de estados territoriais (as autoridades políticas locais) "(Jacobson 2001:177). Mary

Maria Kaldor is more emphatic in her assertion that horizontal transnational networks Kaldor é

mais enfático em sua afirmação de que horizontais redes transnacionais are replacing vertical

territorial based forms of civil society on a global scale. estão substituindo verticais territoriais

baseadas em formas da sociedade civil em escala global. For Para Kaldor: Kaldor: (T)he coming

together of humanitarian and human rights law, the establishment of (T), ele vem junto da

ajuda humanitária e de direitos humanos, o estabelecimento de an international criminal

court, the expansion of international peace-keeping, betoken um tribunal penal internacional,

a expansão internacional de manutenção da paz, betoken an emerging framework of global

governance, what Immanuel Kant described as um quadro emergente de governança global, o

que Immanuel Kant descreveu como universal civil society, in the sense of a cosmopolitan rule

of law, guaranteed by a universal da sociedade civil, no sentido de uma regra cosmopolita de

direito, garantido por um combination of treaties and institutions. combinação de tratados e

instituições. (Kaldor 2003:7) (Kaldor 2003:7) Sceptics, on the other hand, are suspicious of

claims that a global political Os céticos, por outro lado, são suspeitos de alegações de que uma

política global culture based on human rights exists or is constitutive of a global civil society.

cultura baseada nos direitos humanos existe ou é constitutivo de uma sociedade civil global.

Human rights are seen as the weapon of strong states, their abuses used to justify Os direitos

humanos são vistos como a arma de Estados fortes, seus abusos usado para justificar coerciveintervention in weak states such as in Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, Iraq and intervenção coercitiva



em Estados fracos, como na Iugoslávia, Afeganistão, Iraque e now Liberia. agora Libéria. Whilst

tribunals have been set up by the UN Security Council to Tribunais, enquanto foram criados

pelo Conselho de Segurança da ONU deal with mass human rights violations in the Former

Republic of Yugoslavia and acordo com a massa violações dos direitos humanos na ex-

República da Jugoslávia e Rwanda, powerful states, including the 'liberal' United States, have

refused to Ruanda, Estados poderosos, incluindo o 'liberal' dos Estados Unidos, se recusaram a

ratify the Treaty of Rome that proposed the establishment of an International ratificar o

Tratado de Roma, que propôs a criação de uma Internacional Criminal Court. Tribunal Penal.

The US has suggested that there might be illegitimate political Os EUA têm sugerido que pode

haver política ilegítima motivations in accusing US citizens, notably US military personnel, for

alleged motivações de acusar cidadãos americanos, pessoal nomeadamente militares dos EUA,

por alegada viola of 'universal' norms. viola de "universais" normas. However, it has derided

the idea that there might be No entanto, tem ridicularizado a idéia de que pode haver

illegitimate political motivations in accusing citizens of Yugoslavia or Rwanda. ilegítimas

motivações políticas em acusar os cidadãos da Iugoslávia ou Ruanda. One is, therefore, leftwith the impression that, a double standard exists at the Um deles é, portanto, deixou com a

impressão de que, um duplo padrão existente no heart of the global civil society: those from

weak states such as Yugoslavia, coração da sociedade civil global: os de estados fracos como a

Iugoslávia, Rwanda and, Iraq, may be prosecuted whilst those from strong states, defined in

Ruanda e, no Iraque, pode ser processado, enquanto que os de Estados fortes, definida em 38

（ 38） 38 (38) Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI

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realist terms as states possessing both a UN security council veto and, termos realistas como

estados que possuem tanto uma ONU segurança veto no Conselho e, importantly, weapons of

mass destruction, such as the PRC, Russia and the US, importante, as armas de destruição em

massa, como a República Popular da China, Rússia e os EUA, will not be prosecuted. não serão

processados. However, the conventional sceptical critique begs the No entanto, a crítica

convencional cético levanta a question of what is civil society and whether the globalization of

civil society is questão do que é a sociedade civil e se a globalização da sociedade civil é indeed

possible. realmente possível. Global Civil Society Mundial da Sociedade Civil The term 'civil'

society emerged in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth O termo sociedade 'civil' surgiu

na Europa nos séculos XVII e XVIII century to denote a type of society distinct from the state of

nature. século para designar um tipo de sociedade distinto do estado de natureza. For Thomas

Para Thomas Hobbes, the state of nature was conceived of as a 'war, as if of every man,

against Hobbes, o estado de natureza foi concebida como uma guerra ", como se de cada

homem, contra every man' characterized by mutual fear, distrust and anarchy - a concept cada

homem "caracteriza-se por mútuo medo, desconfiança e de anarquia - um conceito which as

we shall see later was seized upon by international relations theorists to que, como veremos

mais tarde foi aproveitado pelos teóricos de relações internacionais para describe the

contemporary international system of states. descrever o sistema internacional

contemporâneo dos Estados. Civil society, in Sociedade civil, em contrast, was characterized bythe rule of law, based on certain fundamental contraste, foi caracterizado pela regra de



direito, com base em fundamentais certo rights enforced by a political authority also subject to

the rule of law (Kaldor direitos impostas por uma autoridade política também sujeitos à regra

de direito (Kaldor 2003:17). 2003:17). The origins of the term civil society lay in the societas

civilis of classical As origens do termo sociedade civil estava nas civilis societas de clássico

antiquity. Antiguidade. The term societas civilis was derived by pre-modern Europeans from Os

civilis societas prazo foi obtido por pré-modernos europeus a partir de Cicero's definition of

the state ( civitas ) as a partnership in law ( societas ) and Definição de Cícero do Estado

(civitas) como uma parceria em Direito (societas) e became a generic term foe a secular legal

and political order (Black 2001:33). tornou-se um inimigo termo genérico de uma ordem

jurídica e política secular (Black 2001:33). The O societas civilis was conceived of as a zone of

'civility,' entailing respect between societas civilis foi concebido como uma zona de

"civilidade", que implica respeito entre members of a political community, based on security

and trust. membros de uma comunidade política, com base na segurança e confiança. Civility

was A civilidade foi associated with the term 'civilization' which for Plato entailed bringing the

associada com a "civilização", o termo que, para Platão, implicava trazer o private interestsand passions of men under control. interesses privados e das paixões dos homens sob

controle. For Aristotle, the societas Para Aristóteles, a societas civilis was equated with the

polis , a political community based upon public reason civilis foi igualado com a polis, uma

comunidade política baseada na razão pública and public deliberation (Kaldor 2003:23). e

deliberação pública (Kaldor 2003:23). Civil society receives its first systematic consideration in

political thought in A sociedade civil recebe a sua primeira consideração sistemática no

pensamento político em John Locke's Second Treatise on Civil Government . Segundo Tratado

de John Locke sobre o Governo Civil. For Locke, the term 'civil Para Locke, o termo 'civil

society' refers to a society of free men, equal under the rule of law, bound together sociedade

"se refere a uma sociedade de homens livres, iguais perante o Estado de Direito, unidos by nocommon purpose but sharing a respect for each other's rights (Gray por nenhum propósito

comum, mas que partilham um respeito para cada um dos outros direitos (Gray 1986:12).

1986:12). These rights differ from the earlier pre-modern emphasis upon duties in Estes

direitos diferir da ênfase anterior pré-moderna em funções em that they are conferred

exclusively upon individuals and are fundamental and que são conferidos exclusivamente

sobre os indivíduos e são fundamentais e inalienable, and remain embedded in a context of

Christian theism. inalienável, e permanece inserida num contexto do teísmo cristão. For John

Para John Dunn, Locke was a 'theocentric thinker for whom the truth of the Christian Dunn,

Locke era um pensador "teocêntrica para quem a verdade do cristão religion ... religião ... was

an indispensable major premise of a scheme of practical reason era uma premissa

indispensável importante de um esquema de razão prática within which most human beings

had sufficient most human beings had sufficient dentro do qual a maioria dos seres humanos

haviam suficientes maioria dos seres humanos teve suficiente motivational grounds for

behaving as ... motivos de motivação para se comportar como ... they ought' (Dunn 2001: 41).

eles deveriam "(Dunn 2001: 41). A civil Um civil,（ 39） 39 (39) 39 'The Liberal Project':

Globalization, Modernity and Identity "O Projeto Liberal: Modernidade, Globalização e

Identidade

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society was seen to have been constituted by a social contract whereby men sociedade era

vista como tendo sido constituída por um contrato social pelo qual os homens exchanged their

natural freedom in return for rights guaranteed by law. trocaram sua liberdade natural em

troca de direitos garantidos por lei. For Para Thomas Hobbes, the fundamental right had been

a security which could only be Thomas Hobbes, o direito fundamental tinha sido um segurança

que só poderia ser provided by a Leviathan commanding absolute authority. fornecido por

uma autoridade absoluta Leviathan comandante. For Locke, 'natural' Para Locke, 'natural'

rights included those of the preservation of life, liberty and property granted to direitos

incluídos os da preservação da vida, liberdade e propriedade concedidos a individuals by God .

indivíduos por Deus. Consequently, these rights may not be taken away or Conseqüentemente,

esses direitos não pode ser tirado ou exchanged by men as they are God's property. trocadas

por homens como eles são propriedade de Deus. The link between civil society and a market

economy was further developed A ligação entre a sociedade civil ea economia de mercado foi

desenvolvido by a group of Scottish thinkers in the late eighteenth century, particularly Adam

por um grupo de pensadores escoceses no século XVIII, principalmente Adam Smith. Smith. Inthe Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations , Smith No Inquérito sobre a

Natureza e as Causas da Riqueza das Nações, Smith argued that the private self-interest of

individuals guided by the 'invisible hand' argumentou que o auto-interesse privado de

indivíduos guiados pela "mão invisível" of the market would lead to the greater prosperity of

society as a whole. do mercado levaria à maior prosperidade da sociedade como um todo. In

order A fim for the market mechanism to be allowed to operate, civil and political liberties

para o mecanismo de mercado para ser autorizado a operar, liberdades civis e políticas needed

to be guaranteed. precisava ser garantida. Thus, the system of commercial liberty finds its

natural Assim, o sistema de liberdade comercial encontra a sua natural counterpart in

constitutional government (Gray 1986:25). contrapartes no governo constitucional (Gray1986:25). Economic and political Econômica e política liberty were to be, from this point on,

indivisible in the classical liberal tradition liberdade eram para ser, a partir deste ponto,

indivisível, na tradição clássica liberal and form the theoretical foundations of contemporary

neo-liberal globalization. e formam os fundamentos teóricos da globalização neo-liberal

contemporâneo. Adam Ferguson had earlier attempted to historicize the concept of civil

society in Adam Ferguson já havia tentado a historicizar o conceito de sociedade civil na his

Essay on the History of Civil Society . Ensaio sobre a História da Sociedade Civil. Civil society,

for Ferguson, was a A sociedade civil, para Ferguson, foi um distinctly modern form of social

and political organization which could be forma distintamente moderna de organização social

e política que poderia ser contrasted, not with a mythical state of nature based on mere

'conjecture', but contrastado, não com um estado mítico da natureza com base em

"conjectura" mera, mas with 'rude nations': the 'uncivilised world' which were in the process

of being com 'rude' nações: o "mundo civilizado", que se encontravam em processo de ser

incorporated into European empires. incorporada impérios europeus. Civil society for

Ferguson was not A sociedade civil não era para Ferguson necessarily superior to the societies

of rude nations but was different, necessariamente superior às sociedades das nações rudes,

mas era diferente, characterized by legality and individualism. caracterizada pela legalidade e

individualismo. Both Smith and Ferguson, in Tanto Smith e Ferguson, em common with their

contemporaries, attempted to ground their theories in a comum com seus contemporâneos,tentou fundamentar suas teorias em um comprehensive account of human social development



and a theory of social and conta global de desenvolvimento social, humano e uma teoria do

desenvolvimento social e economic structure whose terms had the status of general laws and

not merely estrutura econômica, cujos termos tinham o estatuto de leis gerais e não apenas

historical generalizations (Gray 1986:24). generalizações históricas (Gray 1986:24). They,

furthermore, introduced a stadial Eles, além disso, introduziu um estadial theory of history

whereby society developed through different stages defined in teoria da história em que a

sociedade se desenvolvia através de diferentes estágios definidos no terms of 'modes of

subsistence', methods of producing basic human needs (Kaldor termos de "modos de

subsistência", métodos de produção de necessidades humanas básicas (Kaldor 2003:24).

2003:24). The Scottish thinkers, in other words, paved the way for the Os pensadores

escoceses, em outras palavras, pavimentou o caminho para a development of modern

thought: the Enlightenment. evolução do pensamento moderno: o Iluminismo. For Immanuel

Kant, enlightenment referred to 'the freedom to make use of Para Immanuel Kant, o

esclarecimento que se refere o "a liberdade de fazer uso de one's freedom in all matters' (Kant

1991:55).Through enlightenment, man sua liberdade em todos os assuntos "(Kant 1991:55).através da iluminação, o homem emerged from 'self-incurred immaturity' to individual, moral

autonomy. surgiu a partir de "imaturidade auto-suportadas" para a autonomia, moral

individual. For Kant, Para Kant, morality could be derived from reason in a way that was

independent of actual moralidade poderia ser derivada a partir da razão de uma maneira que

foi independente da real 40（ 40） 40 (40) Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI

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experience. experiência. Human beings were enjoined by a categorical imperative to treat Osseres humanos foram intimados por um imperativo categórico para tratar other individuals as

'ends' in themselves. outros indivíduos como 'fins', em si mesmos. It was this categorical

imperative which Foi esse imperativo categórico que provided the basis for the realization of a

'community of ends.' forneceu a base para a realização de uma "comunidade de fins". As Mary

Kaldor Como Mary Kaldor points put, this was conceived of as a universal civil society, the telos

of human colocar pontos, este foi concebido como uma sociedade civil universal, o telos do ser

humano development and was attained through conflict between man's 'asocial

desenvolvimento e foi atingido através do conflito entre o "associal do homem socialibility':

man's ability to live in society as a social being and his tendency to socialibility ': capacidade do

homem de viver em sociedade como um ser social e sua tendência de think and act as an

individual, 'to isolate himself, since he also encounters in pensar e agir como um indivíduo, "a

isolar-se, já que ele também encontra em himself the unsocial characteristic of wanting to

direct everything in accordance se a característica insociável de querer dirigir tudo de acordo

with his own ideas' (Kaldor 2003:25-6). com suas próprias idéias "(Kaldor 2003:25-6). Hegel,

however, criticized Kant's notion that reason was independent of Hegel, no entanto, criticou a

idéia de Kant de que a razão era independente da human experience; rather reason for Hegel

was an historical product and could experiência humana, e sim razão para Hegel era um

produto histórico e poderia not exist beyond the constraints of time and space. não existe para

além das restrições de tempo e espaço. For Hegel reason was Por razões de Hegel foiembodied in language and culture. incorporada na língua e cultura. As the world was



characterized by the À medida que o mundo foi caracterizado pela existence of a multiplicity of

different languages and cultures which differed existência de uma multiplicidade de línguas e

culturas diferentes, que diferiram across time and space, it followed that reason should be the

highest expression of através do tempo e espaço, ele seguiu esse motivo deve ser a mais alta

expressão da the geist , or spirit, of a particular linguistic or cultural group (Jones 2001:106). o

Geist, ou espírito, de um determinado grupo linguístico ou cultural (Jones 2001:106). Thus

reason was simultaneously universal and particular. Assim, a razão era ao mesmo tempo

universal e particular. The geist was a real, O Geist foi um real, concrete, objective force that

remains one, yet is particularized as geists of specific força, concreto objectivo que continua a

ser um, mas é particularizado como geists de específico cultural groups and impersonated in

particular individuals as the Weltgeist or grupos culturais e representadas em indivíduos

particulares como o Weltgeist ou world spirit. espírito do mundo. The Weltgeist progresses

towards self-consciousness through history O Weltgeist progride em direção à auto-

consciência através da história and is seen by Hegel as the gradual realization of freedom

(Hegel 1991). e é visto por Hegel como a realização gradual da liberdade (Hegel, 1991). As heComo ele states in his introduction to The Philosophy of History , the essence of Spirit is afirma

em sua introdução à filosofia da História, a essência do Espírito é Freedom: Liberdade: As the

essence of Matter is Gravity, so, on the other hand, we may affirm that the À medida que a

essência da matéria é a gravidade, assim, por outro lado, pode-se afirmar que o substance, the

essence of Sprit is Freedom. substância, a essência do Espírito é Liberdade. All will readily

assent to the doctrine that Todos irão prontamente concordar com a doutrina de que Spirit,

among other properties, is also endowed with Freedom; but philosophy teaches Espírito, entre

outras propriedades, também é dotado de liberdade, mas a filosofia ensina that all the

qualities of Spirit exist only through freedom; that all are but means for que todas as

qualidades do Espírito só existem através da liberdade, que todos são, mas meios paraattaining Freedom; that all seek and produce this and this alone. alcançar a liberdade, que

todos buscam e produzir isto e isto sozinho. It is a result of É um resultado de speculative

Philosophy that Freedom is the sole truth of Spirit. Filosofia especulativa que a liberdade é a

única verdade do Espírito. (Hegel 1991b:17- (Hegel 1991b: 17 - italics mine). itálicos meus). For

Hegel, freedom does not merely consist of what Isaiah Berlin referred to Para Hegel, a

liberdade não consiste simplesmente do que Isaiah Berlin referido as negative freedom (Berlin

1969), the freedom not to have one's 'natural' rights to como liberdade negativa (Berlin 1969),

não a liberdade de ter as 'naturais' direitos life, liberty and property interfered with, but is

'none other than self- vida, liberdade e propriedade interferência, mas é "ninguém menos do

que auto- consciousness - consciousness of one's own being' (Hegel 1991b:17). consciência - a

consciência do próprio ser "(Hegel 1991b: 17). History is A história é none other than progress

towards the consciousness of freedom (Hegel 1991b:18). ninguém menos que o progresso em

direção à consciência de liberdade (Hegel 1991b: 18).（ 41） 41 (41) 41 'The Liberal Project':

Globalization, Modernity and Identity "O Projeto Liberal: Modernidade, Globalização e

Identidade

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For Hegel, freedom was actualized in civil society ( burgerliche Gesselschaft ), the Para Hegel, a

liberdade foi atualizada na sociedade civil (burgerliche Gesselschaft), o arena of ethical life (

Sittlichkeit ) in between state and family. arena da vida ética (Sittlichkeit) entre Estado e da

família. In the Philosophy of Na Filosofia do Right Hegel subdivides the sphere of ethnical life

into family, civil society and Direito Hegel subdivide a esfera da vida étnica na família,

sociedade civil e state. Estado. They are the 'moments' of 'the ethical order' and 'are the

ethical powers Eles são os 'momentos' de "ordem ética" e "são os poderes éticos which

regulate the life of individuals. que regulam a vida dos indivíduos. The norms of the ethical

order are As normas de ordem ética são actualized in different ways in the actions of and

relations of individuals who atualizada de diferentes maneiras nas ações de e relações de

indivíduos que belong to the three types of ethical order. pertencem aos três tipos de ordem

ético. In the family, ethical duties are Na família, deveres éticos são determined by one's place

in the family. determinado por um de lugar na família. In civil society, however, this type of Na

sociedade civil, no entanto, este tipo de ethical unity disintegrates: éticos desintegra a

unidade: in civil society, each individual is his own end, and all else means nothing to him. nasociedade civil, cada indivíduo é seu próprio fim, e tudo o mais não significa nada para ele. But

Mas he cannot accomplish the full extent of his end without reference to others; these ele não

pode realizar toda a extensão do seu fim, sem referência aos outros, estes others are therefore

means to the end of the particular person. outros são, por conseguinte, meios para o fim da

pessoa em particular. But through its reference to others, the particular end takes on the form

of Mas através da sua referência aos outros, a fim particular, assume a forma de universality,

and gains satisfaction by simultaneously satisfying the welfare of others. universalidade e

satisfação ganhos por satisfazer, simultaneamente, o bem-estar dos outros. (Hegel 1991a: 227-

8) (Hegel 1991a: 227-8) Individuals, in civil society, are primarily concerned with the

satisfaction of Os indivíduos, na sociedade civil, estão principalmente preocupados com asatisfação de their private, selfish wants. seus desejos particulares, egoístas. This is done

through working, producing and Isto é feito através de trabalho, produção e exchanging their

product in the market which is regulated by a framework of troca de seu produto no mercado,

que é regulada por um quadro de rules, which define the rights of individuals, their person and

property. regras, que definem os direitos dos indivíduos, a sua pessoa e propriedade. The O

market, however, is constitutive of another kind of bond. mercado, no entanto, é constitutiva

de um outro tipo de vínculo. Through the market Através do mercado men enter into social

relations with one another and are socialized into playing os homens entram em relações

sociais entre si e são socializados em jogar socially useful roles for which they are rewarded

not only financially but with papéis socialmente úteis para os quais são recompensados não só

financeiramente, mas com recognition . reconhecimento. Thus, civil society was not merely a

system of needs but equally a Assim, a sociedade civil não era meramente um sistema de

necessidades, mas igualmente um sphere of recognition enabling the possibility of

identifications and connections of esfera de reconhecimento que permite a possibilidade de

identificações e conexões de mutuality between individuals and embodied rationally grounded

norms that reciprocidade entre os indivíduos e incorporadas normas racionalmente

fundamentadas que determined conduct (Khilnani 2001: 24).Civil society was, for Hegel, 'the

conduta determinada (Khilnani 2001: 24). A sociedade civil era, para Hegel, "o achievement of

the modern world' and thus the telos of history (Kaldor 2003:27). realização do mundomoderno "e, portanto, o telos da história (Kaldor 2003:27). Global civil society, in a liberal



sense, refers to the 'space of uncoerced human A sociedade civil global, no sentido liberal,

refere-se ao espaço "do ser humano sem coação association' (Walzer 1995:7), existing in

opposition to the state and a states- associação "(Walzer 1995:7), existente em oposição ao

Estado e os estados- system representing the interests of particular national communities.

sistema representa os interesses de determinadas comunidades nacionais. The liberal O liberal

conception of global civil society assumes the existence of the 'unencumbered concepção de

sociedade civil global pressupõe a existência do livre ' individual' that is, individuals unfettered

by cultural or social norms and values indivíduo, isto é, indivíduos sem restrições por normas

culturais ou sociais e valores (Hopgood 2000) This gives rise to a contradiction: On the one

hand all human (Hopgood 2000) Isto dá origem a uma contradição: Por um lado, todos os

direitos humanos beings are assumed to be free, equal and bearers of inalienable rights to life,

os seres são considerados livres, iguais e portadores de direitos inalienáveis de vida, liberty

and property, yet on the other hand, as Margaret Canovan has pointed liberdade e

propriedade, mas por outro lado, como Margaret Canovan apontou 42（ 42） 42 (42)

Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI HANI

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out, 'human beings as we encounter them are not free, not equal, not the bearers fora, dos

seres humanos como nos deparamos com elas não são livres, não igual, não os portadores of

inalienable rights'(Canovan 1990:5). de direitos inalienáveis "(Canovan 1990:5). Human beings

are born and live within a Os seres humanos nascem e vivem dentro de um particular political

community, and are bound to their fellow citizens by special comunidade política particular, e

estão vinculados aos seus concidadãos por especial ties. laços. These ties usually include acommon interest in maintaining the stability Esses laços costumam incluir um interesse

comum na manutenção da estabilidade and integrity of their community. e integridade da sua

comunidade. Since human beings grow up within a Como os seres humanos cresçam dentro de

um particular community, they tend to feel a part of it and define their identity in comunidade

em particular, tendem a se sentir parte dela e definir sua identidade em terms of it. termos do

mesmo. They, in the words of Bhikhu Parekh, 'see their community as theirs, Eles, nas palavras

de Bhikhu Parekh, "ver a sua comunidade como a deles, feel a particular sense of responsibility

for it, experience pride or shame when it uma sensação especial de responsabilidade por isso

orgulho experiência, ou vergonha quando does or does not live up to certain ideals, and take

interest in its problems' faz ou não jus a certos ideais, e ter interesse em seus problemas "

(Parekh 2003:8). (Parekh 2003:8). These communities frequently have different social and

cultural norms and Essas comunidades freqüentemente têm diferentes normas sociais e

culturais e values and relate to one another asymmetrically, according to local and global

valores e se relacionam com uma outra forma assimétrica, de acordo com local e global

hierarchies of power and inequality. hierarquias de poder e desigualdade. The special ties that

bind members of these Os laços especiais que unem os membros desses communities

together may be national, ethnic, religious, regional, linguistic or comunidades juntas pode ser

nacional, étnica, religiosa, regional, lingüístico ou even civilizational (Huntington 1993;1996)

but can not be global . mesmo civilizacional (Huntington 1993, 1996), mas não pode ser global.This is because, Isto é porque, as Chris Brown points out, 'a global identity would have no



possibility of a universal standpoint, 'the view from nowhere' (Nagel 1986) na possibilidade de

um ponto de vista universal, "A visão de lugar nenhum" (Nagel 1986) which can be applied

across time and space. o que pode ser aplicada ao longo do tempo e espaço. The view from

nowhere, however, far from being frozen in time and space, A visão de lugar nenhum, no

entanto, longe de ser congelado no tempo e no espaço, developed in post-renaissance Europe

in the seventeenth and eighteenth century, desenvolvido no pós-renascentista Europa no

século XVII e XVIII, in the aftermath of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) and gradually was

adopted as na sequência da Guerra dos Trinta Anos (1618-48) e, gradualmente, foi adotado

como the worldview of an assertive, mainly Protestant bourgeoisie. One of the central a visão

de mundo de uma burguesia, assertivo principalmente protestante. Uma central elements of

this 'view from nowhere' was the privileging of the individual as a elementos desta "visão de

lugar nenhum" foi o privilégio de o indivíduo como um rational , autonomous and self-

determining being whose consideration outweighed ser racional, autônomo e auto-

determinação, cuja consideração superados that of the community into which he or she was

born. da comunidade em que ele ou ela nasceu. Science, a form of Science, uma forma deknowledge that brought control and mastery over one's physical environment, conhecimento

que trouxe controle e domínio sobre o próprio ambiente físico, was also seen as being able

bring the emancipation of the individual from the também foi visto como sendo capaz trazer a

emancipação do indivíduo a partir da ignorance and servitude of his or her social mileux .

ignorância e da servidão de sua mileux social. Thus, above all, the Assim, acima de tudo, o

Enlightenment world-view was characterized by a commitment to rationalism : Iluminismo

mundo-view foi caracterizado por um compromisso com o racionalismo: the belief in the

power of reason to establish conclusive truths that lead to the a crença no poder da razão para

estabelecer verdades conclusivas que levam à progressive emancipation of the individual from

the constraints imposed upon his progressiva emancipação do indivíduo das restriçõesimpostas a sua or her liberty by the physical or social environment. ou sua liberdade pelo

ambiente físico ou social. Modernity and Identity Modernidade e Identidade The idea of

progress towards a universal human civilization characterized by A idéia de progresso rumo a

uma civilização universal humano caracterizada por individualism, rationality and secularism,

although absent from some of the racionalidade, o individualismo eo secularismo, embora

ausente de alguns dos earliest thinkers associated with the Enlightenment such as Hobbes,

was integral primeiros pensadores associados ao Iluminismo, como Hobbes, foi integrante to

the subsequent development of modern thought, most notably in the work of para o

desenvolvimento posterior do pensamento moderno, principalmente no trabalho de Kant,

Hegel, Marx and Weber. Kant, Hegel, Marx e Weber. Modernity was conceived of as a single, A

modernidade foi concebido como um único, homogenous process that encompassed many

distinct aspects and could be traced processo homogêneo, que englobava muitos aspectos

distintos e pode ser rastreada to a single causal principle: the rise of capitalist commodity

production for Marx a um único princípio causal: o aumento da produção mercantil capitalista,

para Marx, and of rationalization for Weber. e de racionalização de Weber. Modernity was

associated with the development Modernidade foi associada com o desenvolvimento of

industrial capitalism and its distinct social forms, the most prominent of which do capitalismo

industrial e suas distintas formas sociais, o mais proeminente dos quais was the nation-state.

foi o Estado-nação. Industrial capitalism comprised of two dimensions: O capitalismo industrialcomposta por duas dimensões: industrialism and capitalism. industrialismo e do capitalismo.



Industrialism refers to the social relations implied O industrialismo se refere às relações sociais

implicados in the widespread use of material power and machinery in production processes,

no uso generalizado do poder material e máquinas nos processos de produção, whilst

capitalism refers to a system of commodity production involving the enquanto o capitalismo se

refere a um sistema de produção de mercadorias, envolvendo a private ownership of the

means of production and the commodification of labour propriedade privada dos meios de

produção ea mercantilização do trabalho (Giddens 1991:15). (Giddens 1991:15). Industrial

capitalism necessitated new forms of social and O capitalismo industrial exigia novas formas de

social e political control. controle político. Social control was provided by organization - the

regularized O controle social foi fornecido pela organização - a regularização control of social

relations across indefinite time-space distances (Giddens controle das relações sociais através

indefinidas do espaço-tempo (Giddens distâncias 44（ 44） 44 (44) Giorgio S Giorgio S HANI

HANI

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1991:16), whilst a specific type of organization, the state, was to maintain 1991:16), enquanto

um tipo específico de organização, o Estado, era manter political control through its 'monopoly

of the legitimate use of physical force controle político através de seu monopólio do uso

legítimo da força física within a given territory' (Weber 1991:78). dentro de um determinado

território "(Weber 1991:78). Although both Marx and Weber saw modernization as a universal

process, Embora tanto Marx e Weber viu a modernização como um processo universal, their

theories of modernity helped to qualify the universality of the suas teorias da modernidade

ajudou a qualificar a universalidade da Enlightenment project. Projeto iluminista. Whilst Marxparticularized liberal-capitalist modernity as Enquanto Marx particularizado modernidade

liberal-capitalista como the ideology of the bourgeoisie, Weber explored its cultural roots in

Protestant a ideologia da burguesia, Weber explorou suas raízes culturais na protestante

asceticism. ascetismo. Following Marx and Weber, liberal-capitalist modernity may be seen

Seguindo Marx e Weber, a modernidade liberal-capitalista pode ser visto as encompassing a

specifically bourgeois , Protestant world-view. como abrangendo uma especificamente

burguês, protestante visão de mundo. It refers to the Refere-se à institutions and modes of

behaviour established first of all in post-feudal Europe, instituições e modos de

comportamento estabelecidos em primeiro lugar na pós-feudal da Europa, but which in the

twentieth century became world-historical in their impact mas que no século XX tornou-se

histórico-mundial no seu impacto (Giddens 1991:15). (Giddens 1991:15). Modernization,

conceived of teleologically as progress towards Modernização, concebida como o progresso

em direção teleologicamente a universal civilization implied not only the incorporation of the

rest of the world uma civilização universal implícita não só a incorporação do resto do mundo

into a single world market but also the progressive Westernization (or, more em um único

mercado mundial, mas também a ocidentalização progressiva (ou, mais precisely,

Protestantization) of indigenous cultures. precisamente Protestantização) das culturas

indígenas. For most of the post- Para a maioria dos pós- enlightenment period, this took the

form of colonialism and imperialism: varying período de iluminação, esta tomou a forma decolonialismo, imperialismo e: variando degrees of European political and economic control



over the rest of the world. graus de controlo político e económico europeu sobre o resto do

mundo. This Este Imperial 'mission' in Asia, to use Karl Marx phrase, was simultaneously

'Missão' Imperial na Ásia, para usar a frase de Karl Marx, era simultaneamente destructive and

regenerating, entailing 'the annihilation of old Asiatic society and destrutiva e regeneradora, o

que implica "a aniquilação da velha sociedade asiática e the laying of the material foundations

of Western society in Asia' (Marx a colocação das bases materiais da sociedade ocidental na

Ásia "(Marx 1977:332). 1977:332). Colonial practice, however, significantly diverged from this

model. Prática colonial, no entanto, divergiram significativamente a partir deste modelo.

Today, the custodians of the 'liberal project' are the United States and its Hoje, os guardiões do

'liberal projeto são Estados Unidos e sua North Atlantic allies in NATO and in the G7. Aliados da

NATO no Atlântico Norte e no G7. The US is wedded to liberal Os EUA se une à liberal

universalism where it remains an 'ideology of undiminished strength' reflected universalismo

onde permanece uma "ideologia da força intacta" refletida not only in a legalist discourse of

fundamental rights but also in public life and não só a vida em um discurso legalista de direitos

fundamentais, mas também em público e academic world where 'there is no tradition of thought or reflection that is not mundo acadêmico, onde "não há tradição de pensamento ou

reflexão que não é liberal' (Gray 1995:173). liberal "(Gray 1995:173). The US and its allies,

despite differences over policy as Os EUA e seus aliados, apesar das diferenças sobre a política

como recently manifested in the war against Iraq, are committed to the globalization of

recentemente manifestado na guerra contra o Iraque, estão comprometidos com a

globalização da the 'liberal project' and use their leverage over indebted Southern societies o

'liberal projeto e use sua influência sobre endividados sociedades do Sul through principal

institutions of the international political economy, the através de instituições principais da

economia política internacional, o International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank and, to a

lesser extent, the Fundo Monetário Internacional (FMI), Banco Mundial e, em menor medida, aWorld Trade Organization (WTO), to achieve this goal. Organização Mundial do Comércio

(OMC), para atingir esse objetivo. Their main instrument Seu principal instrumento used for

liberalizing the economies and societies of the South are structural utilizado para a

liberalização das economias e sociedades do Sul são estruturais adjustment policies (SAPs).

políticas de ajuste (SAPS). SAPs refer to policies prescribed by the IMF/ World SAPs se referir a

políticas prescritas pelo FMI / Mundo Bank nexus to heavily indebted societies which seek

radical institutional reform Banco nexo de sociedades altamente endividados que buscam a

reforma institucional radical along neo-liberal lines. ao longo de linhas neo-liberais. Nominally

they seek an efficient form of management by Nominalmente eles buscam uma forma

eficiente de gestão por emphasizing market forces and the benefits of export-led growth, but,

as Robert enfatizando as forças de mercado e os benefícios do crescimento liderado pelas

exportações, mas, como Robert（ 45） 45 (45) 45 'The Liberal Project': Globalization,

Modernity and Identity "O Projeto Liberal: Modernidade, Globalização e Identidade

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Biel has argued, they also serve to make the internal economic and political Biel argumentou,

eles também servem para fazer o interno econômico e político structures of the Southconform to the dictates of the international system of estruturas do Sul em conformidade com



então a freqüência de conflito seria drasticamente reduzido. Recently, Michael Doyle has

proposed a 'democratic peace thesis' which has Recentemente, Michael Doyle propôs uma

"tese da paz democrática", que tem assumed the status of an axiom of international relations

(Doyle 1999). assumiu o status de um axioma de Relações Internacionais (Doyle 1999). Doyle

Doyle equates Kant's republic with contemporary liberal democracies and has equivale

república de Kant com democracias liberais contemporâneas e tem persuasively (if incorrectly)

argued that no two liberal democracies have gone to persuasivamente (se incorretamente)

argumentou que não há duas democracias liberais foram para war with another. guerra com o

outro. Kant's project for a universal history of mankind was undertaken by Hegel in Projeto de

Kant de uma história universal da humanidade foi realizado por Hegel na 46（ 46） 46 (46)

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the generation following his death. a geração após a sua morte. The task of such a universal

history was to A tarefa de uma história universal era 'provide the exhibition of Spirit ( geist ) in

the process of working out the "Proporcionar a exposição de Espírito (Geist) no processo de

trabalhar a knowledge of that which it is potentially' (Hegel 1991b:17-8). conhecimento

daquilo que é potencialmente "(Hegel 1991b :17-8). History proceeds A história procede

through a continual process of conflict, wherein societies and systems of thought através de

um processo contínuo de conflito, sociedades wherein e sistemas de pensamento based upon

different ideas clash and then fall apart due to their own internal com base em confronto

ideias diferentes e depois desmoronar devido ao seu próprio interno contradictions.

contradições. This dialectic took place between different societies as successive Essa dialéticaocorreu entre diferentes sociedades como sucessiva systems of thought are replaced by less

contradictory ones. sistemas de pensamento são substituídos por outros menos contraditórias.

For Hegel, the 'history Para Hegel, a história ' of the world is none other than the progress of

the consciousness of freedom' do mundo não é outro senão o progresso da consciência da

liberdade " (Hegel 1991b:19). (Hegel 1991b: 19). The consciousness of freedom was absent

amongst the A consciência da liberdade era ausente entre os 'Orientals' living under despotic

rule and first emerged amongst the Greeks. Vida "dos orientais sob o domínio despótico e

surgiu entre os gregos. However, they -and the Romans later- knew only that some were free -

not No entanto, eles e os romanos mais tarde, sabia apenas que alguns eram livres - não man

as such since they kept slaves and ' their whole lives and the maintenance of homem como tal,

uma vez que mantinha escravos e de toda a sua vida ea manutenção de their splendid liberty,

was implicated with the institution of slavery' (Hegel sua liberdade esplêndida, estava

implicado com a instituição da escravidão "(Hegel 1991b:18). 1991b: 18). The Roman Empire

ultimately collapsed because it established the O Império Romano entrou em colapso em

última análise, pois estabeleceu a universal legal equality of men, without recognizing their

rights and dignity. igualdade jurídica universal dos homens, sem reconhecer seus direitos e

dignidade. This Este recognition was to be found in the ideology of Christianity that established

the reconhecimento era para ser encontrada na ideologia do cristianismo, que criou o

universal equality of man on the basis of his moral freedoms. igualdade universal do homemsobre a base das suas liberdades morais. It was only under Foi apenas sob the influence of



Christianity that the 'German nations' were able to attain the a influência do cristianismo que

os dos países alemães foram capazes de atingir o consciousness that man as man is free.

consciência de que o homem como o homem é livre. Thus: Assim: the Eastern nations knew

only that one is free; the Greek and Roman world only that as nações do Leste sabia apenas

que um é livre, o mundo grego e romano só que some are free, while we know that men

absolutely (man as man) are free (Hegel Alguns são gratuitos, enquanto nós sabemos que os

homens absolutamente (o homem como homem) são livres (Hegel 1991b:19) 1991b: 19)

Freedom finds its embodiment in the modern constitutional state, which A liberdade encontra

a sua incorporação no Estado constitucional moderno, que Fukuyama equates with a

specifically liberal-democratic one. Fukuyama se equipara ao especificamente um liberal-

democrático. It is only in the É apenas no social and political institutions of the modern state,

that man becomes conscious instituições sociais e políticas do Estado moderno, que o homem

se torna consciente of his/her freedom. de seu / sua liberdade. The realization of individual

self-consciousness would, A realização da autoconsciência individual seria, therefore, close the

dialectic and bring 'history' - defined as the progress of man portanto, fechar a dialética etrazer "história" - definido como o progresso do homem to consciousness of freedom - to an

end. a consciência de liberdade - ao fim. For Fukuyama, 'the monumental Para Fukuyama, "o

monumental failure of Marxism as a basis for real-world societies' (Fukuyama 1992:65)

fracasso do marxismo como base para as sociedades do mundo real "(Fukuyama 1992:65)

invalidates Marx's critique of Hegel's philosophy of history. invalida a crítica de Marx da

filosofia hegeliana da história. Marx had argued that Marx argumentava que the realisation of

self-consciousness was dependent upon man first satisfying his a realização de auto-

consciência era dependente de primeiro homem satisfazer sua material needs since 'the mode

of production of material life conditions the social, necessidades materiais uma vez que "o

modo de produção das condições materiais a vida social, political and intellectual life process'(Marx 1977:388). processo da vida política e intelectual "(MARX, 1977:388). It followed that a

Seguiu-se que um sufficiently large surplus product must be available to release men from

direct suficientemente grande excedente do produto deve estar disponível para libertar os

homens da direta productive activity in order for them to realise their freedom. atividade

produtiva, para que elas realizem a sua liberdade. This was not Isto não era（ 47） 47 (47) 47

'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity "O Projeto Liberal: Modernidade,

Globalização e Identidade

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possible under capitalism as a fundamental contradiction remained between the possível sob o

capitalismo como uma contradição fundamental manteve-se entre o interests of two classes:

the bourgeoisie, the owners of the means of production, interesses de duas classes: a

burguesia, os proprietários dos meios de produção, and the proletariat. eo proletariado. The

formal political equality and freedom of individuals are A igualdade formal política e liberdade

dos indivíduos são contradicted by the unequal nature of capitalist relations of production: the

contrariada pela natureza desigual das relações capitalistas de produção: o expropriation of

the labourer's surplus value by the capitalist. expropriação de valor do trabalhador excedentepelo capitalista. Under capitalism, Sob o capitalismo, men become 'more and more enslaved



under a power alien to them ... os homens se tornam "cada vez mais escravizada em um

alienígena poder para eles ... a power um poder which has become more and more enormous

and ... que se tornou mais e mais enorme e ... turns out to be the world acaba por ser o mundo

market' (Marx and Engels 1965:48-9). mercado "(Marx e Engels 1965:48-9). Hegel's

constitutional state was unable to Estado constitucional de Hegel não foi capaz de resolve this

contradiction since it was 'but a committee for managing the common resolver esta

contradição, uma vez que era ", mas um comitê para gerir o comum affairs of the whole

bourgeoisie' (Marx and Engels 1848). assuntos de toda a classe burguesa "(Marx e Engels

1848). Only the socialization of Apenas socialização do the means of production and the

establishment of a communist society by the os meios de produção ea criação de uma

sociedade comunista pela proletariat, 'the universal class' would bring history to an end.

proletariado ", a classe universal" seria trazer a história para um fim. The establishment of

'communist' societies in the Socialist world, however, O estabelecimento de 'comunistas'

sociedades no mundo socialista, no entanto, did not bring the anticipated 'withering away of

the state' predicted by Marx and não trouxe o tão esperado "definhamento do Estado"prevista por Marx e Engels but instead the establishment of proletarian dictatorships and

'state Engels, mas sim o estabelecimento de ditaduras proletárias e do "Estado capitalism'.

capitalismo ". Under state capitalism, the state itself constituted a class of Sob o capitalismo de

estado, o próprio estado constituía uma classe de apparatchiki and took on the historic task of

the bourgeoisie in expropriating the apparatchiki e assumiu a tarefa histórica da burguesia na

expropriação do surplus value of the labourer and maintaining control over the principal mais-

valia do trabalhador e mantém o controle sobre o principal institutions of civil society.

instituições da sociedade civil. The failure of state capitalism to match standards of O fracasso

do capitalismo de Estado para corresponder aos padrões de living in the more developed West

triggered a wave of democratic protests que vivem no Ocidente mais desenvolvidodesencadeou uma onda de protestos democráticos through the Soviet bloc in 1989 which led

to its eventual demise. através do bloco soviético em 1989 que levou à sua eventual extinção.

For Fukuyama, Por Fukuyama, the 'triumph' of liberal-capitalism over both socialism in the last

century constitutes 'the end point of mankind's ideological evolution' and the 'final form of

human government.' Furthermore, Fukuyama argues that the universalization of liberal-

democracy constitutes the end of history as it is 'free of fundamental internal contradictions'

(Fukuyama 1992:xi). It follows, as Fukuyama's support for the recent Anglo-American wars

against Afghanistan and Iraq suggests, that those societies without liberal-democratic

institutions whose leaders prefer to remain insulated from the fluctuations of the world

market, stand 'outside of history' waiting to be brought in, perhaps coercively, by those more

'advanced' states which best embody liberal ideals. This is the flip-side of the democratic peace

thesis proposed by Doyle and influential in foreign policy circles in Washington and London.

Doyle has argued that in order to preserve a liberal community of states, or, following Kant,

the 'zone of peace', it is necessary to extend the liberal zone through inspiration (hoping

peoples in non-democratic regimes will struggle for their liberty), instigation (economic

restructuring) and, if all else fails as in Iraq, intervention (Doyle 1999: 41-6). 48（ 48）

Giorgio S HANI

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Furthermore, 'successful' or stable liberal democracies require a participatory or 'democratic'

political culture: one in which rights-bearing individuals reflexively participate in politics. Thus

the 'liberal project', as Tom Young has pointed out, requires a form of social engineering: the

creation of a reflexive citizenry from communities with differing value-systems (Young 1995).

Here a comparison of US policy towards post-war Japan during its occupation (1945-52) and

contemporary post-Saddam Iraq (2003) is instructive. The occupation of Japan has been

evoked frequently by contemporary American policy-makers in the light of the Iraq war.

Following their overwhelming victory in the Pacific war (1941-5), the American authorities

under the command of General Douglas MacArthur attempted to impose a 'democratic

revolution from above.' In the words of John Dower, the Americans set out 'doing what no

other occupation force had done before: remaking the political, social, cultural, and economic

fabric of a defeated nation, and in the process changing the very way of thinking of the

populace' (Dower 1999: 78). Its relative success, despite the considerable divergence from the

western model, particularly in the sphere of economic policy, has encouraged the Bush

administration to attempt, or at least pay lip service to, a similar transformation in Iraq. The'liberal project' in its economic dimension also requires the creation of a world market of

consumers . Culturally, the 'liberal project' will manifest itself in the emergence of what

Benjamin Barber termed 'McWorld': a homogenous cultural space in which the forces of global

consumerism reduce differences to trivialities (Barber 1992; 1995). However, as the events of

September 11 th º 2001 aptly demonstrate, jihad is as much part of our present era of

globalization as is McWorld. Jihad , whose generic meaning in Arabic is 'struggle', is used by

Barber to refer to 'a hundred narrowly conceived faiths against every kind of interdependence,

every kind of artificial social cooperation and civic mutuality' which threaten a 'retribalization

of large swaths of humankind by war and bloodshed: a threatened Lebanonization of national

states in which culture is pitted against culture, people against people, tribe against tribe'(Barber 1992: 54). Contrary to the hopes espoused by the philosophes of the Enlightenment

thinkers throughout the modern period, we find at its close, as John Gray points out, a

'renaissance of particularlisms, ethnic and religious' (Gray 1995:145). A global ethno-religious

revival has accompanied the collapse of Soviet variant of the modernist project. Nowhere is

this more noticeable than in the birthplace of the Enlightenment: Europe itself. For a Para uma

decade following the introduction of multi-party elections and a market economy in 1990,

ethnic conflict simmered and then shattered the ethnic mosaic of （ 49） 49 'The Liberal

Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity

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societies in the then Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY). Why then has the 'liberal project'

failed to remake the world in the image of the Western prototype and to have universalized

Enlightenment ideals? We can Podemos isolate at least three different types of explanation for

the contemporary failure of liberal- capitalist modernity to take root in the non-western world.

The first type of explanation sees the 'liberal project' itself as deeply flawed from its very

conception. concepção. For Alasdair MacIntyre, the 'liberal' project, like its Marxist-Leninist

variant, was destined to fail. MacIntyre conceives of the Enlightenment as the project of anindependent, rational justification of morality (MacIntyre 1981:51). A project which given the



incommensurability of different cultural viewpoints or premises, is, according to MacIntyre,

bound to end in failure since there remains 'no theoretically, neutral, pre-theoretical ground

from which the adjudication of competing claims can proceed' (MacIntyre 1990:173). The

globalization of the 'liberal' project has so far failed to 'empty' the self of inherited modes of

thought and conduct. The reason why the 'western' self appears more modern than the non-

western self lies in the continuity between western modern and pre-modern patterns of

thought and practice. The modern western self, like the 'liberal project' itself, remains

anchored in the social and cultural norms of Christianity. The second type of explanation

locates its failure, paradoxically, in the very dynamism of modernity. For Giddens, the very

dynamism of modernity works against the replication of the 'liberal project' throughout the

world. For Giddens, the modern world is a 'runaway' world marked by uncertainty, risk and

doubt. Three elements, or sets of elements, help explain the dynamic character of modern life:

the separation of time and space, disembedding mechanisms and institutional reflexivity. The

separation of time and space involves an 'emptying' out of time and space through the

widespread use of mechanical timing devices and zones. Disembedding mechanisms consist of symbolic tokens - interchangeable media of exchange which have standard value- and expert

systems which bracket time and space through deploying modes of technical knowledge which

have independent validity. The transformation of time and space, coupled with the

disembedding mechanisms, propel social life away from the hold of inherited modes of

practice encouraging a greater institutional reflexivity . Modernity's reflexivity refers to the

susceptibility of most aspects of social activity and material relations with nature, to chronic

revision in the light of new information or knowledge. It is the very reflexivity of modernity,

however, that turns out to undermine the foundations of Enlightenment thought. For the Para

o philosophes of the Enlightenment, reason could overcome the dogmas of tradition 50（ 50

） Giorgio S HANI

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by offering certainty of knowledge in place of habit. However, the reflexivity of modernity

erodes certitude by exposing widely established' scientific' theories, including those of

modernity, to the methodological principle of doubt (Giddens 1991:15-21). A common

reaction to such dislocation is to seek reaffirmation of one's self-identity by drawing closer to

any collective that is able to reduce uncertainty and anxiety. Religion and ethno-national

identities and are viewed as particularly relevant organizing principles at a time when modern

society is making increasing demands on individuals as religion -like nationalism- supplies

existential answers to individuals' quest for security by providing order from the chaos and

uncertainty in the world (Kinvall 2001: 89). Finally, the third set of explanations, which are

crucial to the development of the following argument in this chapter, focus on the ways in

which liberal capitalist modernity encounters traditional, indigenous societies. For Sudipta

Kaviraj, conventional theories of modernity are 'faulty' in three different respects. First, Kaviraj

argues that, although the coming of modernity entails a massive alteration of social practices,

not all modern practices are either historically unprecedented or accepted uncritically by the

modernizing society. Background Fundo skills of earlier inherited practices work inside andthrough new ones 'to bend them into unfamiliar shapes' (Kaviraj 2000:139). Modernization in



Islamic societies, for example, has not led to the creation of modern, secular liberal-

democratic societies and has instead, as Gellner has argued, strengthened the position of the

ulemma , urban, literate religious scholars who were in the vanguard of the Iranian revolution

in 1978 (Gellner 1994). However, the 'failure' of secular, liberal democracies to emerge in

Islamic societies 1 1 may be contrasted on the one hand with the appeal of an 'Islamic

democracy' for the Shi'ite Muslims of Iran and Iraq and with the distinctiveness and longevity

of Indian and Japanese democracies on the other. Although a modern democratic form of

government was first introduced India and Japan by their respective conquerors, once

institutionalized Indian and Japanese democracy took on a distinctive shape of its own,

broadening and deepening its appeal by drawing upon indigenous practices and beliefs. A

similar accommodation between modern and indigenous practices may well be needed for

democracy to take root in Iraq after the collapse of the regime of Saddam Hussein despite the

best intentions of her American conquerors. Iraq could do worse than emulate her southern

neighbour where the（ 51） 51 'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity 1.

1. Turkey, Malaysia, Pakistan under civilian rule and contemporary Indonesia provideexceptions to this rule.

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establishment of an 'Islamic democracy' in the wake of the Islamic revolution have so far

proved successful, despite an inhospitable regional environment. Second, modernity is,

contrary to the conventional theories of Marx and Weber, not a single, homogenous process

that can be traced to a single causal principle but is, in fact, constituted by a plurality of

historically distinct processes (Kaviraj 2000:139). Modernity is not a homogeneous process andin Asia, Africa or Latin America was not experienced in the same way as it was in the West. The

O centralized state, for example, was not a natural outgrowth from previous inherited forms of

political and social organization but was imposed coercively by the colonial powers on

indigenous societies. The colonial state, however, was neither hegemonic nor uniform; its

patterns of control varied from genocide, as in the Belgian Congo, German South West Africa

or British Australia 2 2 , to , Para constitutional government, as in the latter years of the British

Raj 3 3 or Japan 4 4 under the American occupation. Capitalism was also unevenly experienced

by different societies in different historical epochs. Sub-saharan Africa and Latin America were

incorporated into the modern world system of capitalism as producers of primary

commodities, including labour, at a time when most of East Asia remained firmly outside,

giving to theories of development and underdevelopment which have sought to explain the

poverty of the former (Frank 1973, Rodney 1980) with reference to the operations of a global

capitalist economy which has enriched the latter. The different paths to modernity, or rather,

the different ways of experiencing the different aspects of modernity help explain the

distinctive character of modern cultural identities. Third, following Giddens, Kaviraj suggests

that because of the existence of the principle of reflexivity at the heart of modernity, it is

doubtful that all societies, once freed of colonial rule, would voluntarily choose to emulate the

experience of Western modernity (Kaviraj 2000:141). The attractiveness of the Soviet variant

of modernity until its collapse in the early 1990s was indicative of a deep hostility on the partof post-colonial elites towards the Western powers and suspicion of their goals and interests in



promulgating market-oriented growth 52（ 52） Giorgio S HANI 2. 2. See Mann (2001) or a

discussion of genocidal colonial policies in South West African and Australia. Austrália. 3. 3. It

should be pointed out that the early years of British rule in India after the 1857 mutiny was

characterized by a considerable degree of repression and that India was only able to

experience a limited form democracy when the Raj was confronted by a powerful, mass-based

nationalist movement. 4. 4. See Dower (1999) for an analysis of the coercive imposition of a

'democratic revolution from above.'

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strategies designed to benefit private capital, much of it in foreign hands. This Este hostility,

born of experiences of colonialism, has not, however, resulted in a rejection of western

modernity but a search for more effective solutions to indigenous problems - solutions which

in East Asia has taken the form of a preference for more consensual and collective forms of decision-making, whilst in much of the Islamic world and South Asia, this reflexive rationality

has led to an accommodation between politics and religion. Although conventional western

models of modernity are flawed, they have not been rejected outright by the pre- modern

cultures they encounter but have been adopted in different ways and have taken a distinctly

local flavour. Thus, it is possible to speak, not of a grand narrative of modernity or of a single

modern project, but of multiple modernities (Eisenstadt 2000). The modern project has not

failed as much as been transformed by the various pre-modern practices it has sought to

confine to the dustbin of history and, in so doing, has fractured along ethno-national or

religious lines . Conclusion Conclusão A world culture which was simply a uniform culture

would be no culture at all. We Nós should have a humanity de-humanised. It would be anightmare. But on the other hand, we cannot resign the idea of world-culture altogether. [...]

We must aspire to a common world culture, which will yet not diminish the particularity of the

constituent parts. partes. (Eliot, 1948:62-63) As the above quotation from Eliot suggests, a

world, or global culture remains a dream worth pursuing. A global identity also remains a

distant possibility as identities in general are 'never completed, never finished; ... they are

always as subjectivity itself is, in process .... Identity is always in the process of formation' (Hall

1997: 47). This dream however could easily turn into a nightmare. If Se globalization is to

produce a global culture which does not recognize difference, a homogenous McWorld, then

indeed it would de-humanize humanity. What O que advocates of conventional theories of

globalization understand by the global, is, as Stuart Hall has pointed out, 'the self-presentation

of the dominant particular'. It is É the way in which the dominant particular, in this case the

West, 'localizes and naturalizes itself and associates with it a variety of other minorities' (Hall

1997: 67). Conventional liberal theories of globalization may therefore be seen as both a

statement of western ideals and the intellectual tools through which the West,（ 53） 53

'The Liberal Project': Globalization, Modernity and Identity

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and the United States in particular, have attempted to rationalize and legitimize its political,

economic and cultural hegemony since the collapse of the Soviet Union. União. This is not,

however, to deny the reality of globalization, or rather the intensification of the globalizing

processes, particularly in the economic sphere, but merely to question the 'Liberal Project's'

claims to universality, to a 'view from nowhere' (Nagel 1986). We must, as Foucault insists,

'never forget that the Enlightenment is an event, or rather a set of events and complex

historical processes that is located at a certain point in the development of European societies'

(Foucault 1991:43). A recognition of globalization as a distinctively western project, however,

does not necessarily imply that alternative forms of modernity can not take root in non-

western societies. India, Iran and Japan may all in their different ways be seen as modern

societies, indeed a case could be made for regarding Japan as more modern than many if not

all western societies, certainly if one were to employ strictly economic or institutional criteria.

Similarly, politicized ethno- religious movements should not be seen as reactions to, but as

products of globalization and modernity. Certainly, the recent technological revolution has

facilitated, through the improvement of communications and information technology, theformation of transnational identities. It is now possible for members of the same ethnic,

cultural, religious or political group to remain in contact across time and space. To take an

extreme example, al-Qaeda despite its 'fundamentalist' ideology, is perhaps as modern, in

terms of its technological sophistication and its ability to maintain links between members in

different parts of the world, as the more conventional and labour intensive agencies and

forces attempting to crush it. In this sense, even 'fundamentalist' groups which reject outright

the central tenets of the Enlightenment, may be considered modern, even though they seek

not to capture but to destroy state power. As Como Chris Brown puts it, 'Osama bin Laden is as

modern a figure as Tony Blair, but represents a different kind of modernity' (Brown 2002:298).

Modernity, shorn of its ideological Enlightenment baggage, thus becomes a purely descriptiveterm, used to describe the acquisition of a particular level of economic and/or technological

competency. However, the acquisition of a certain degree of 'scientific' competency

presupposes a commitment to a rationality which can not be constrained by traditional forms

of social or political authority. Modernity can, therefore, best be seen, following Foucault, as

an attitude . By attitude, Foucault means a 'mode of relating to contemporary reality; a

voluntary choice made by certain people; in 54（ 54） Giorgio S HANI

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the end, a way of thinking and feeling; a way too, of acting and behaving that at one and the

same time marks a relation of belonging and presents itself as a task' (Foucault 1991:39).

However, a modern attitude is a particular kind of attitude. Foucault terms it a limit-attitude ,

one that consists of analyzing and reflecting upon limits (Foucault 1991:45). In other words,

modernity may be seen as comprising a critical or, to use Giddens's term, reflexive attitude

towards the inherited boundaries of reality which consequently mark one's identity. All

identities, therefore, which involve reflection and analysis may be termed modern identities.

identidades. Modernity, therefore, does not, a the philosphes of the Enlightenment

teleologically suggest, entail a single political project which will culminate in the establishmentof a global (liberal) civil society, but multiple projects whose outcomes can neither be



predicted nor controlled by existing state structures which are themselves products of an

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