eng 420 lecture5n6

8/12/2019 Eng 420 Lecture5n6

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Chapters 5 and 6 – Speech Communities and Language Variation

abgdezhqi

klmnxoprstufcyw

Top left: Greek

Bottom left: Cherokee

Middle: Arabic

Top right: Russian

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What is language? A system of symbols with standardmeanings.

Allows humans to communicate and isthe main vehicle of transmission ofculture.

Language provides context for symbolicunderstanding.

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Other CommunicationHuman:

Direct

• Body language (kinesics), tone of voice, personal space(proxemics), gesture

Indirect• Writing, mathematics, music, painting, signs

Nonhuman:Sounds, odors, body movements

Call systems, ethologists

ASL – American Sign Language

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PIE

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Speech Community ―some kind of social group whosespeech characteristics are of interestand can be described in a coherentmanner‖ Wardhaugh 116

―fuzzy‖ Wardhaugh 116

Groups? What does that mean? How do weavoid stereotyping?

Ethnicity, class, geography, etc

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“Our search must be for criteriaother than, or at least in addition

to, linguistic criteria if we are to gain a useful understanding of

„speech community.‟ (Wardhaugh

118)

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“…a search for the various

characteristics which make

individuals feel that they aremembers of the same

community” (Wardhaugh 118)

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“r” dropping in NY, though

commonly done, is considered“low” pahk de cah

“r” dropping in South England is

considered “posh” „fahthah‟

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“h” dropping considered low inSouth England but normal in

most American dialects

Eliza Doolittle vs “it‟s erbal

Herb”

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A speech community is defined as much by

what it is not as what it is. The group must

manifest regular relationships between

language use and social structure, and there

must be norms (Wardhaugh 120)

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Language and Culture not

always connected:

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Language and Culture not always connected

Ngoni of Africa

No longer speak their own language but have

adopted language of the people theyconquered in Malawi.

―However, they use that language in ways

they have carried over from Ngoni, ways theymaintain because they consider them to beessential to their continued identity as apeople‖ (Wardhaugh 120)

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Groups in North America with

culture but not language?Which ones

Are these ―speech communities?‖ Magdalene College, Cambridge!

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Hypercorrection

• Lower Middle Class speakers sometimes use prestige features at a greater rate than

Upper Middle Class speakers. • And LMC speakers use stigmatized features at a lower rate than the UMC. • Because the LMC wish to achieve the next

higher level of status, they attempt to talk like members of the next higher class, but they go too far.

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Gender and Language Variation • Trudgill also studied the effect of gender on variation in word-final –ing in words like

running (runnin') and swimming (swimmin'). • He found that women tend to use more standard language features than men.

• And men tend to use more vernacular forms in their speech.

We’ll try to return to this in the section of thetext on language and gender

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Discussion Questions p. 122

Take 30 minutes in groups1. Try to label yourself according to what kind(s) of English youspeak. Explain why you choose the specific terms you use andany connotations these terms have for you, e.g. Lancastrian,

Bakersfeldian, Texan English, Californian, American3. In what respects do the following pairs of people belong tothe same speech community or to different ones: Presidents BillClinton and GWBush; Madonna and Guy Ritchie; Hugh Grantand Carey Grant; Sean Connery and Ewan McGregor

4. Describe the linguistic uses of some bilinguals with whom you are familiar.When do they use each of the languages? If you are bilingual yourself, in whatways do you identify with people who show the same range of linguisticabilities? A different range?

5. Answer question 5, time permitting.

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Intersecting Communities A great deal of bilingualism in themodern world

Most speech communities are fairly fluid

What should the ‗target‘ language anddialect be?

Individuals shift identities and speechand languages freely

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Communities of Practice ―an aggregate of people who come togetheraround mutual engagements in some

common endeavor. Ways of doing things,ways of talking, beliefs, values, powerrelations – in short, practices – emerge in thecourse of their joint activity around that

endeavor‖ Ekert and McConnell-Ginet inWardhaugh 125

Examples? Gangs, reading groups, etc…

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Look at questions 1 and 2 on p.

126

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What is Social Class?

• Social class involves grouping people together and according them status within society according to the groups they

belong to.

What is Social Class?

• A number of modern thinkers have tried to define what makes a particular “social

class.”

– Is it accent?

–…neighborhood?

–…occupation?

–…income? –…wealth?

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Determinants of Social Class

• Personal performance – Education

– Occupation

– Income

– Awards and achievements

• Wealth – Amount

– Source

• Social orientation

– Interactions

– Class consciousness

– Value orientation

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The United States of Americais a classless and egalitarian

society!!

Do you agree or disagree?

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Class Structure in the U.S.

• Two upper classes – Upper upper : Old money

– Lower upper : New money

• Three middle classes

– Upper middle : Professional

– Middle class : White collar and entrepreneurs – Working class : Blue collar

• Two lower classes

– Upper lower : Unskilled laborers

– Lower lower : Socially and economically

disadvantaged

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AmericansTend to think they are middle class orupper class or upper middle class

Tend to think that they will be upperclass someday

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Indexes of Social Class

• How you look

• How you dress

• How you talk • What you like to do

• Where you live

• What your house looks like

• What you eat

a lot of food, good tasting food, good looking food

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Variables of Social Class • Power

– The degree to which a person can control other people

• Wealth

– Objects or symbols owned by people which have value

attached to them • Prestige

– The degree of respect, favorable regard, or

importance accorded to a person by members of

society

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Networks and Repetoires Various network relationships on p.127. These diagrams show that aperson can be part of various speechcommunities, some that intersect andsome that do not. Certain individuals

may be in one or more groups but notothers.

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Social Class and Speech

Style • Peter Trudgill studied variation in word-final ing in words like running (runnin') and swimming (swimmin') in Norwich, England. • Four speech styles – Reading aloud of word lists – Reading aloud of text – Formal speech

– Casual speech • Trudgill found that variation across speech styles parallels variation across social class.

What method is used in our accentpresentations? Should we include class?

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Now it is time for a ten minute

break. When you return, we will

do 10 to 15 accent presentations

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Language Variation

Dialects

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Language VariationDialects

Regional Dialects (geography)

Social Dialects (class, group, ethnicity, etc)

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Regional VariationTraditional study of dialect

Important part of Historical Linguistics

Family trees and phonemic ―splits‖between languages and dialectsattributed to time, space, etc…

Latin v /w/ to /v/ in later periodIE. *ptr to Latin pater to French pere

To Germanic fader to English father

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Dialect in Old EnglishThey no doubt existed, but we don‘tsee them in the manuscripts very much

because scribes wrote the literarystandard for of Old English

Hwaet we gardena in geardagum

theodkinginga thrim gefrunon

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Dialects in Middle English At least five

Kentish

Southern Northern East-Midland

West-Midland

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KentishKentish was originally spoken over the whole southeastern partof England, including London and Essex, but during the MiddleEnglish period its area was steadily diminished by the

encroachment of the East Midland dialect, especially afterLondon became an East Midland-speaking city (see below); inlate Middle English the Kentish dialect was confined to Kent andSussex. In the Early Modern period, after the London dialecthad begun to replace the dialects of neighboring areas, Kentishdied out, leaving no descendants. Kentish is interesting to

linguists because on the one hand its sound system showsdistinctive innovations (already in the Old English period), buton the other its syntax and verb inflection are extremelyconservative; as late as 1340, Kentish syntax is still virtually

identical with Old English syntax.

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Southern

The Southern dialect of Middle English was spoken in the areawest of Sussex and south and southwest of the Thames. It wasthe direct descendant of the West Saxon dialect of Old English,

which was the colloquial basis for the Anglo-Saxon court dialectof Old English. Southern Middle English is a conservative dialect(though not as conservative as Kentish), which shows littleinfluence from other languages — most importantly, noScandinavian influence (see below). Descendants of Southern

Middle English still survive in the working-class country dialectsof the extreme southwest of England.

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Northern

By contrast with these southernmost dialects, Northern Middle Englishevolved rapidly: the inflectional systems of its nouns and verbs werealready sharply reduced by 1300, and its syntax is also innovative (and

thus more like that of Modern English). These developments wereprobably the result of Scandinavian influence. In the aftermath of thegreat Scandinavian invasions of the 860's and 870's, large numbers ofScandinavian families settled in northern and northeastern England.When the descendants of King Alfred the Great of Wessex reconqueredthose areas (in the first half of the 10th century), the Scandinavian

settlers, who spoke Old Norse, were obliged to learn Old English. But insome areas their settlements had so completely displaced thepreexisting English settlements that they cannot have had sufficientcontact with native speakers of Old English to learn the language well.

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More on NorthernThey learned it badly, carrying over into their English variousfeatures of Norse (such as the pronoun they and the noun law), and also producing a simplified syntax that was neither good

English nor good Norse. Those developments can be clearlyseen in a few late Old English documents from the region, suchas the glosses on the Lindisfarne Gospels (ca. 950) and the Aldbrough sundial (late 11th century). None of this would havemattered for the development of English as a whole if thespeakers of this "Norsified English" had been powerless

peasants; but they were not. Most were freeholding farmers,and in many northern districts they constituted the local powerstructure. Thus their bad English became the local prestigenorm, survived, and eventually began to spread (much later — see below).

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East-M idland and West-M idland

The East-Midland and West-Midland dialects of Middle Englishare intermediate between the Northern and Southern/Kentishextremes. In the West Midlands there is a gradation of dialectpeculiarities from Northern to Southern as one moves fromLancashire to Cheshire and then down the Severn valley. Thisdialect has left modern descendants in the working- classcountry dialects of the area. The East-Midland dialect is muchmore interesting. The northern parts of its dialect area werealso an area of heavy Scandinavian settlement, so that northernEast-Midland Middle English shows the same kinds of rapid

development as its Northern neighbor. But the subdialectboundaries within East-Midland were far from static: the morenortherly variety spread steadily southward, extending theinfluence of Scandinavianized English long after theScandinavian population had been totally assimilated.

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Dialect Atlases ―Try to show the geographicalboundaries of the distribution of a

particular linguistic feature by drawing aline on a map‖ (Wardhaugh 134)

Such a line is called an isogloss

On one side of the line people say onething, on the other they say a differentthing.

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IsoglossThe isogloss is the boundary linebetween groups who say something

differently

When there are a number of differentthings said on one side of the boundary

from what is said on the other side, wecan say that the boundary marks adialect boundary

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Examples from some Middle

English Dialects

We‘ll use the ELMO for this.

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Relic areas and transition areas

(Back to modern examples)Simply terms referring to sub areas whereshifts do not occur. As if the Antelope Valley

continued to refer to any bubbly soft drink as ‗coke‘ while the rest of LA county shifted tocalling it ‗soda‘. AV would be a relic area,and perhaps Beverly Hills, a status areawhere the shift might originate or Watts alow status area where the shift mightoriginate would be focal areas and LAcounty would be the transition area

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The Soda pop page

http://www.popvssoda.com/

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American Dialect page

(note area for San Franciscodialect)

http://www.geocities.com/Broadway/1906/dialects.html

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Linguistic Atlas of the US and Canada ―The selection of informants tends not to be very wellcontrolled‖ Wardhaugh 137

Broken down into simplified categories like high,middle, and low class – no education, someeducation, superior education – old, middle aged,young

Most studies tend to prefer older people

One survey of British dialects instructed researchersto choose informants who were over sixty, at leastsecond generation, and had good teeth

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Dialects remember two kindsGeographical dialects. We‘ve just done.

Social dialects. We discussed socialdialect and class in the first part of thispowerpoint.

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William LabovSociolinguist who we mentioned in thefirst part of this presentation

Interested in class and did most of hisstudies in New York City.

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Linguistic Variable A linguistic item which has identified variants.

Fishin / fishing/ fishen

Car / cah With / wit / wifLatin / la?in thirty / thirdy

Coffee / cowfee

―It was a macao Tom not a parrot!‖

He‘s happy / he be happy / he happy Climbed / clomb

Look for a present for my mom / look for my moma present

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Labov also uses indicator,

marker, stereotypeIndicator: a linguistic variable without socialimportance. Cot/caught. merry/marry/Mary

Marker: a linguistic variable with socialsignificance. Car/cah, schedule/shedule,Magdalene college/ Maudlin college, DownBelow/LA, Los Angeles/Los Angeles, The

City/Frisco?Stereotype: a popular and therefore conciouscharacterization of speech of a group. Boidfor NY, Chap for Brit, Howdy partner, dude

for Ca

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William Labov’s

Department Store Study

• Saks Fifth Avenue

– At 50th Street and 5th Avenue, near the center

of the high fashion shopping district

• Macy's

– Herald Square. 34th Street and Sixth Avenue,

near the garment district

• S. Klein

– Union Square. 14th Street and Broadway, not

far from the Lower East Side

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Discussion Questions on p. 1431. What is a shibboleth?

3. What linguistic variables might be

usefully investigated in our part of theworld? What kind of variations have younoticed?

4. Examples where people hypercorrectand get things wrong? English avacado?

5. What‘s wrong with double negatives?

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Idiolects and SociolectsIdiolect (idios Greek ―self‖ lect

―speech‖ as in lecture): speech

characteristics and linguistic behaviourof individuals

Sociolect: speech characteristics of

members of social groups

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Data CollectionHow to we properly design and deliverand analyze our studies

Observer‘s paradox, how can we adjustfor our own biases

Can any sociolinguistic study be

completely objective and clean?

Questionnaires

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Questionnaires: four-fold distinctions

1. Casual situation

2. An interview

3. Reading aloud a story

4. Reading aloud a list of word pairs

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Casual and careful speechWe should try to distinguish whetherthe speech involved is casual or careful

What is the speech of the Please callStella speakers? Does it vary fromspeaker to speaker?

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Please call Stella Are there any words that are clearlinguistic variables in the paragraph?

What is the different between theaccent of a native speaker and theaccent of a learner?

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Random Sample or Judgment Sample

Random: usually better way to do it. Itis more objective, but more difficult to

do.

Judgment sample: an investigatorchooses subjects according to a set of

criteria: age, gender, social class,education, etc… These are the kind ofsamples that sociolinguists usually take

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Dependent and independent variablesThe linguistic variable in these studies is thedependent variable – the difference that we

are interested in.Other variables may be incidental orunrelated to the correlation being studied.

Statisticians consider most of thesesociolinguistic studies to lack sufficient rigour.

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Sociolinguistics and scientific studies

Sociolinguists need to collect reliabledata, but how can they?

Since we can not even give satisfactorydefinitions of sociolingustics, orlanguage, or society, or dialect, or

creole, how can we do scientific studiesin this field?

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Epistemic relativism vs Logical Positivism

Relativism: sociolinguistic studies are notuseful because all linguistic norms are

relative. Jibberish or the sound of gasescaping from a tube is as important andinteresting as human speech

Logical positivism: since we can not be sure

about any of these claims, we should notmake any claims. We need scientific proof.

Theoretical linguistics is about universals. It isrigorous and highly structured.

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END HERE

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Nonhuman Communication -

WashoeBorn 1965

Taught ASL 1966

Mastered 100s ofsigns

First nonhuman to

learn language

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Nonhuman Communication - LanaTaught withkeyboard, 1970s

Able to use andcombine signs

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Nonhuman Communication - Koko1970s, first gorillataught ASL

IQ of 85 at 4 yearsold

Koko learning ASL

Koko on AOL

http://www.koko.org/world/kokotv.html

http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/4451/KokoLiveChat.html


http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/4451/KokoLiveChat.html


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Nonhuman Communication –

Nim Chimpsky

1980s taught ASL

Wouldn‘t initiateconversation

Never signed toother chimps

Nim Chimpsky andhis namesake, thefamed linguist NoamChomsky

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Nonhuman Communication - Kanzi1980s, communicateswith lexigrams

Vocabulary of 90symbols

Could understand

EnglishCommand of syntax

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Nonhuman Communication –

Jane Goodall

Gombe Game

ReserveChimps needstimulus to makesounds

Since 1960s

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Animal v. Human CommunicationFour differences:

Productivity (infinite expressions)

Displacement (past, present, future) Arbitrariness (no link between word and sound)

Combining sounds (phonemes)

• Dime versus dine or lock versus rock in English

• English has 45 phonemes; Italian 27; Hawaiian 13

• Nonhuman animals cannot combine sounds (1:1correspondence of sounds)

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Anatomy of LanguageBrain

Size

LateralityWernicke‘s area

Broca‘s area

Motor cortex

Motor cortex

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SociolinguisticsLike descriptive linguistics in a way, in thatsociolinguists are concerned with theethnography of speaking —cultural andsubcultural patterns of speech variation indifferent social contexts.

Examples:

Pronunciation and dialectsHonorifics and social status

Gender differences

Multilingualism

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Anatomy of LanguageRespiratory System

Larger lung capacity

Larynx, pharynxTongue, lips, nose

Hyoid

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Structure of LanguagePhonology (sounds)

Morphology (words)

Syntax (sentence structure)

Semantics (meaning)

Pragmatics or grammar (rules)

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Structure of Language - PhonologyThe study of sounds of a language.No human language uses all the sounds humanscan make.IPA – International Phonetic AlphabetPhonemes and phones

/l/ and /r/ = phonemes (English has 40) /p/ and /ph/ = phones

Ghoti = fish (tough , wo men, positi on)

Other soundsTones, nasals, clicks (Genesis in the !Kung language)

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Structure of Language - MorphologyMorphemes are the smallest units oflanguage.

Words (dog , cat ) = free morphemes

Prefixes (un -, sub- )

Syllables (-s , -ly )

Declining and conjugating

Verbs are conjugated (am, are, is)Nouns are declined in some languages

• Latin, Greek, German, Russian, etc.

• Word form changes based on position in sentence.

= bound morphemes

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Structure of Language - SyntaxRules for how to put together sentences andphrases.

Six possible arrangements, based on Subject, Verb,

ObjectEnglish is SVO = The girl will hit the boy.

Forming questions: English = V1SV2O?

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Structure of Language - SyntaxExample of syntax

Lewis Carroll‘s Jabberwocky:

‗Twas brillig, and the slithy toves

Did gyre and gimble in the wabe.

All mimsy were the borogoves,

And the mome raths outgrabe.

Verb Noun Adjective

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Structure of Language - SemanticsThe meaning of symbols, words, phrases,and sentences of a language.

Ethnosemantics and kinship terms Aunt/uncle versus non-gendered cousin

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Evolution of LanguageOld Theories:

―bowwow‖ and ―ding-dong‖

Locke, B.F. Skinner, DescartesNew Theories:

Noam Chomsky

• Universal and generative grammar

• Principles and parameters

Creoles, pidgins, and Ebonics

Sapir-Whorf

http://www.stanford.edu/~rickford/papers/SuiteForEbonyAndPhonics.html

http://www.stanford.edu/~rickford/papers/SuiteForEbonyAndPhonics.html

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Historical LinguisticsFocuses on how language changes over timeand how languages relate to one another.

Anthropologists are interested in culturalfeatures that correlate with language families.

Reconstruction of languages:Proto-Indo-European

Sino-TibetanLinguistic divergence

Gradual or by force

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Historical Linguistics – Old EnglishCompare Old, Middle, and ModernEnglish

Beowulf (Old English):

Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum,

þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon,

hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum,

monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah,

egsode eorlas.

Lo, praise of the prowess of people-

kings of spear-armed Danes, in days

long sped, we have heard, and what

honor the athelings won! Oft Scyldthe Scefing tore the mead-bench

from squadroned foes, from many a

tribe awing the earls.

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Historical Linguistics –

Middle EnglishThe Canterbury Tales (Middle English):

This worthy lymytour, this noble Frere,He made alwey a maner louryng chiere

Upon the Somonour, but for honestee

No vileyns word as yet to hym spak he.

This worthy limiter, this noble friar,He turned always a lowering face, and dire,Upon the summoner, but for courtesyNo rude and insolent word as yet spoke he.

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Descriptive Linguistics Also called structural linguistics

Tries to discover the rules of phonology,

morphology, and syntax of anotherlanguage, especially those with nowritten dictionary or grammar.

Seeks to discover language rules thatare not written down but arediscoverable in actual speech.

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Fun StuffLanguage as art

Calligraphy

Illumination

Left to Right:

Chinese

Greek

Arabic

English

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Fun StuffInternet and English

… as a tool of mass communication … as a way to propagate non-standard English

… as a dialect, or a linguistic event?

Romeo & Juliet - IM style

http://myboringlife.com/l33t/romeo.html





eng 420 lecture5n6

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