símbolos da notação musical moderna
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símbolos da notação musical modernaOrigem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre
musical símbolos modernos são as marcas e símbolos que são amplamente utilizados em
partituras musicais de todos os estilos e instrumentos hoje. Este pretende ser um guia completo
de Inglês a vários símbolos encontrados na moderna notação musical.
Conteúdo [esconder]
1 Linhas
2 Clefs
3 notas e pausas
4 Breaks
5 Accidentals e chave de assinaturas
o 5,1 acidentes comuns
o 5,2 assinaturas Key
o 5,3 -tom acidentes Trimestre
6 Tempo de assinaturas
7 Note relações
8 Dynamics
9 marcas de Articulação
10 Ornaments
11 Oitavas
12 Repetição e codas
13 Instrumento de notação específica
o 13,1 Guitar
o 13,2 Piano
13.2.1 marcas Pedal
13.2.2 notação piano Outros
14 Veja também
15 referências
[editar]LinhasFuncionários ou staveA treliça fundamental da notação musical, em que os símbolos são colocados. As cinco linhas e quatro espaços funcionários intervenientes correspondem a alturas da escala diatônica - que passo é entender por uma determinada linha ou espaço é definida pela clave. Com a clave de sol, a linha inferior pessoal é atribuído E acima de C médio (E4 emoitavas notação nota), o espaço acima é F4, e assim por diante. O pessoal grand combina graves e agudos equipes em um sistema unidos por uma cinta. É usado para teclado e harpa música. As linhas em um período de cinco funcionários da linha de base são designados um número de um a cinco, a linha de fundo sendo o primeiro eo top de linha a ser o quinto. Os espaços entre as linhas são,
da mesma forma, numeradas de um a quatro. Na música, a educação para a Clave, o mnemônico "Cada Good Boy Does Fine" (ou "Todo Good Boy Deserves Fudge") é usado para lembrar o valor de cada linha de baixo para cima. Os espaços intersticiais são muitas vezes lembrado como a soletração da palavra "cara" (notas FACE).
Ledger linhas ou legerUtilizado para prolongar o pessoal para arremessos que caem acima ou abaixo dele. Razão linhas são colocadas atrás da cabeça da nota, e estender uma pequena distância de cada lado.
linha BarUtilizado para medidas distintas (ver assinaturas tempo abaixo para uma explicação de medidas). Bar linhas são estendidas para conectar-se a parte superior e inferior de funcionários uma equipe grande.
Double linha bar, barra duplaUsada para separar duas seções ou frases da música. Também é usado em mudanças na armadura de clave ou grandes mudanças no estilo ou ritmo. A ousada linha de barra dupla indica a conclusão de um movimento ou uma composição inteira.
Linha pontilhada bar, barra pontilhadaSubdivide medidas de longo em segmentos menores para facilitar a leitura, geralmente de acordo com a natural subdivisões rítmicas.
Accolade, cintaConecta duas ou mais linhas de músicas que são tocadas simultaneamente.[1] Dependendo do tocar instrumentos, a cinta, ou elogios, irá variar em modelos e estilos.
[editar]Clefs
Ver artigo principal: Clef
Clefs definir o intervalo de pitch, ou tessitura, do pessoal em que ele é colocado. A clave é
geralmente o mais à esquerda em um símbolo pessoal. claves adicionais podem aparecer no
meio de uma equipe para indicar uma mudança de registo de instrumentos com uma vasta
gama. Na música antiga, claves poderia ser colocado em qualquer uma das várias linhas de
uma pauta.G clef (Treble Clef)O centro da espiral define a linha ou espaço em que se baseia como o breu G C acima do meio, ou cerca de 392 Hz.Posicionado aqui, ele atribui G C acima da média para a segunda linha do fundo do pessoal, e é referido como o treble clef ". Esta é a clave mais comumente encontradas em notação moderna, e é usado para mais modernas da música vocal. Médio-C é o primeiro livro da linha abaixo da pauta aqui. O formato da clave vem de uma versão estilizada maiúsculas-G.
C clef (Alto Clave e Tenor Clef)Isso aponta para a clave de linha (ou espaço, raramente), representando C média, ou cerca de 262 Hz. Posicionado aqui, faz a linha central na equipe C do meio, e é referido como o "alto clave". Esta clave é utilizada na notação moderna para aviola. Embora todas as claves podem ser colocados em qualquer lugar na equipe para indicar vários tessitura, a clave C é muitas vezes considerada uma "clave" móveis: ele é visto freqüentemente apontando para a quarta linha e chamou uma clave tenor ". Esta clave é utilizada muito frequentemente na música escrita para fagote, violoncelo, e trombone, que substitui a clave de fá, quando o número de linhas de Ledger acima da pauta baixo dificulta a leitura fácil.
claves C foram usados na música vocal do período clássico e versões anteriores, porém seu uso na música vocal, foi suplantado pelo uso universal das claves agudos e graves. As edições modernas de música a partir de tais períodos geralmente transpor as peças originais C-clave, quer agudos (vozes femininas), treble oitava (tenores), ou clave de fá (tenores e baixos).F clave (Bass Clef)A linha ou o espaço entre os pontos nesta clave indica F C abaixo do meio, ou seja, aproximadamente 175 Hz.Posicionado aqui, faz a segunda linha do topo da F pessoal abaixo do meio C, e é chamado de clave de fá ". Esta clave parece quase tão freqüentemente quanto a clave de sol, especialmente na música coral, onde representa o baixo ea voz de barítono. Médio C é o primeiro livro da linha acima da pauta aqui. O formato da clave vem de uma versão estilizada maiúsculas F (que costumava ser escrito no verso da F moderna)
clave NeutralUsada para instrumentos pitchless, como alguns desses usados para percussão. Cada linha pode representar um instrumento de percussão específico dentro de um conjunto, como em uma bateria. Dois estilos diferentes de claves neutro são retratados aqui. Também pode ser desenhado com uma equipe de funcionários de uma única linha separada para cada instrumento de percussão desafinados.
Octave ClefAgudos e claves bass também podem ser modificadas por números de oitavas. Um oito ou quinze sobre uma clave aumenta o intervalo pitch destinados por uma ou duas oitavas respectivamente. Da mesma forma, um oito ou quinze abaixo uma clave reduz o alcance passo por uma ou duas oitavas respectivamente. A clave de Sol com um período de oito a seguir é o mais comumente usado, normalmente usado em vez de uma clave para as linhas C tenor em partituras corais. Mesmo se os oito não estiver presente, as partes tenor na clave de sol devem ser entendidas como cantado uma oitava abaixo do que escrito.
Tablatura
Para guitarras e outros instrumentos de cordas pinçadas, é possível anotar tablatura no lugar
de notas comuns. Neste caso, um sinal de TAB é muitas vezes escrito em vez de uma clave. O
número de linhas do pessoal não é necessariamente cinco: uma linha é usado para cada corda
do instrumento (por isso, padrão de cordas, guitarras 6, seis linhas serão utilizadas). Os
números sobre as linhas show em que traste as cordas devem ser tocadas. Este guia sinal,
como a clave de percussão, não é uma clave no verdadeiro sentido, mas sim um símbolo
utilizado em vez de uma clave. Os espaços intersticiais em uma tablatura nunca são usadas.
[editar]Notas e descansa
Ver artigo principal: Note valor
Observação e descanso valores não são absolutamente definidas, mas são proporcionais à
duração de todas as notas e outros valores de repouso. A semibreve é o valor de referência, e
as outras notas são nomeadas (em Americana), em comparação, ou seja, uma semínima é um
quarto do comprimento de uma semibreve.Nota British Nome / Americana Descanso
Breve / nota Double todo
Semibreve nota / Total
Minim / Half nota
Crotchet nota Bairro /
Colcheia / Oitava NotaPara notas deste comprimento e menor, a nota tem o mesmo
número de bandeiras (ou ganchos) que o resto tem filiais.
Semicolcheia / XVI nota
Demisemiquaver nota / Trinta segundos
Hemidemisemiquaver nota / sexagésima quarta
notas BeamedVigas contato colcheias (colcheias) e notas de menor valor, e são equivalentes em termos de valor para o pavilhão. Na música metered, vigas refletem o agrupamento rítmico das notas. Eles também podem ser usados para agrupar frases curtas de notas do mesmo valor, independentemente do metro, o que é mais comum nas passagens ametrical. Em impressões mais velhos da música vocal, as vigas são usadas apenas quando várias notas serão cantadas com uma batida; notação moderna estimula o uso de irradiação de uma forma consistente com gravação instrumental, ea presença de feixes ou bandeiras não informa o cantor . Hoje, devido ao corpo da música tradicional em que os Estados métrica nem sempre são assumidas, radiante fica a critério do compositor ou arranjador e irregular vigas são frequentemente utilizados para dar ênfase em um padrão rítmico específico.Nota pontuadaColocando os pontos à direita da notehead correspondente prolonga a duração da
nota. n pontos prolongar a nota seu valor, por exemplo, um ponto à metade, dois pontos em três quartos, três pontos por sete oitavos e assim por diante.Restos podem ser pontilhadas da mesma forma que as notas. Por exemplo, se uma nota trimestre teve um ponto ao lado de si mesma, ela iria ficar um ano e meio batidas.
Multi-medida de repousoIndica o número de medidas em uma parte de repouso, sem uma mudança no metro, que serve para economizar espaço e simplificar a notação. Também chamado de descanso "apanhado" ou "resto-bar multi".
Durações mais curtas do que os 64 são raros, mas não desconhecido. regista 128 são
utilizadas por Mozart e Beethoven; notas 256 ocorrem em obras de Vivaldi e até
Beethoven. Um caso extremo é a Toccata Grande cromatica no início do século 19 o
compositor americano Anthony Philip Heinrich, que usa valores de nota tão curto quanto 2,048
ths, no entanto, o contexto mostra claramente que essas notas têm um feixe mais do que
pretendia, assim que deve realmente a 1024 observa ª.
O nome de curtas notas muito pode ser encontrado com a seguinte fórmula: Numme =
2(número de bandeiras em nota + 2)nota ª.
[editar]Breaks
marca BreathEm uma nota, este símbolo diz o intérprete de respirar (ou fazer uma pequena pausa para o vento não instrumentos).Essa pausa geralmente não afeta o tempo todo. Para instrumentos de arco, que indica a levantar a proa e tocar a próxima nota com um baixo (ou para cima, se marcados) arco.
PausaIndica uma pausa breve silêncio, durante o qual o tempo não é contado. Em conjunto tocando tempo, recomeça quando indicado pelo maestro ou líder.
[editar]Accidentals e chave de assinaturas
Ver artigo principal: acidental (música) e chave de assinatura
[editar]acidentes comuns
Acidentes modificar o tom da nota que segui-los sobre a posição pessoal dentro de uma
mesma medida, a não ser cancelada por um acidente adicionais.
ApartamentoReduz o tom de uma nota por um semitom.
AfiadoGera o tom de uma nota em um semitom.
NaturalCancela um acidente anterior, ou modifica o tom de um sustenido ou bemol, tal como definido pela assinatura vigente chave (como Fá sustenido na clave de Sol maior, por exemplo).
Double apartamentoBaixa o tom de uma nota de dois semitons cromáticos. Normalmente usado quando a nota a ser modificada já está achatado pela armadura de clave.
Dupla afiadaGera o tom de uma nota de dois semitons cromáticos. Normalmente usado quando a nota a ser modificada já sharped pela armadura de clave.
[editar]Principais assinaturas
assinaturas Key define prevalecente chave da música que se segue, evitando assim o uso de
acidentes de muitas notas. Se não houver assinatura de chave aparece, a chave é assumido
como sendo C maior / menor, mas também pode significar uma chave neutro, empregando
acidentes individuais, conforme necessário para cada nota. Os exemplos de chaves de
assinatura que aparece aqui são descritos como eles aparecem em um triplo pessoal.Flat claveBaixa por um semitom a altura das notas na linha correspondente ou no espaço, e todas as oitavas º, definindo assim a maior ou menor chave em vigor. Diferentes chaves são definidos pelo número de apartamentos na assinatura chave, começando com a esquerda, ou seja, B ♭, e segue para a direita, por exemplo, se apenas os dois primeiros apartamentos são usados, é a chave B ♭ maior / G menores, e todos os B e E estão "achatados", ou seja, baixou para B ♭ ♭ e E.
Sharp claveEleva por um semitom a altura das notas na linha correspondente ou no espaço, e todas as oitavas º, definindo assim a maior ou menor chave em vigor. Diferentes chaves são definidos pelo número de sustenidos na armadura de tom, também provenientes da esquerda para a direita, por exemplo, se apenas os quatro primeiros sustenidos são usados, a chave é importante E / C ♯ menores, e os campos correspondentes são gerados.
[editar]-tom acidentes Trimestre
Estes são exemplos de notação mais comum para a música que envolvam tons
trimestre. (Microtonal notação na música ocidental não é muito padronizado e outros símbolos
podem ser utilizados em vez de os abaixo).
DemiflatReduz o tom de uma nota por um quarto de tom. (Outra notação para o demiflat é um apartamento com uma barra diagonal através do seu caule. Nos sistemas em que passos estão divididos em intervalos menores do que um quarto de tom, o plano reduziu representa uma nota inferior ao apartamento invertida).
Flat-e-meia (sesquiflat)Reduz o tom de uma nota de três tons trimestre.
DemisharpGera o tom de uma nota por um quarto de tom.
Sharp-e-um-metadeGera o tom de uma nota de três tons trimestre. Às vezes representado com dois e três barras verticais em vez diagonal.
[editar]Time assinaturas
Ver artigo principal: assinatura Time
assinaturas Time definir o contador da música. A música é "marcada" em seções uniformes
chamados bares ou medidas, e as assinaturas tempo estabelecer o número de batidas em
cada um. Esta não é, necessariamente, destinada a indicar quais são batidas ressaltar, no
entanto. A assinatura de tempo que transmite informações sobre a forma como a peça soa
realmente é assim escolhido. assinaturas Time tendem a sugerir, mas apenas sugerir, os
agrupamentos existentes de batidas ou pulsos.
tempo específicoO número final representa o valor da nota de o impulso básico da música (neste caso, o 4 representa a semínima ou semínima). O primeiro número indica quantos desses valores aparecem em nota de cada medida. Este exemplo informa que cada medida é o comprimento equivalente a três luas (quartas-de-notas). Você iria pronunciar isso como "Três por quatro vezes", e foi referido como um "momento perfeito".
tempo comumEste símbolo é um regresso ao século XVI notação rítmica, quando representava 04/02, ou "tempo imperfeito". Hoje ela representa 04/04.
Alla breve ou de corteEste símbolo representa duas metades do tempo, indicando dois minim (ou meia-nota) batimentos por medida. Aqui, uma semínima (ou semínima) conseguiria bater um meia.
Metronome marcaEscrito no início de uma partitura, e em qualquer mudança significativa do tempo, este símbolo precisamente define o ritmo da música através da atribuição de durações absolutas para todos os valores de nota na partitura. Neste exemplo particular, o artista é dito que 120 luas, ou semínimas, se encaixam em um minuto de tempo. Muitos editores preceder a marcação com as letras "MM", referindo-se Maelzel's Metronome.
[editar]Nota relações
GravataIndica que os dois (ou mais) notas juntas estão a ser tocada como uma nota com os valores de tempo somado. Para ser um empate, as notas devem ser idênticos, ou seja, eles devem estar na mesma linha ou no mesmo espaço, caso contrário, é uma calúnia (ver abaixo).
EstigmaIndica que duas ou mais notas estão a ser tocada em um golpe físico, uma respiração contínua, ou (em instrumentos de sopro, nem com nenhum arco) conectado em uma frase como se jogado em uma única respiração. Em certos contextos, um insulto só pode indicar que as notas estão a ser tocada legato, neste caso, rearticulação é permitido.
Insultos e os laços são similares na aparência. Um empate é distinta porque sempre
junta exatamente dois imediato notas adjacentes da mesma altura, ao passo que uma
ligação pode participar qualquer número de notas de diferentes alturas.
A marca de frase (ou mais raramente, ligadura) é uma marca que é visualmente
idêntica a uma ofensa, mas se conecta uma passagem de música através de diversas
medidas. A frase indica uma marca de expressão musical e não podem
necessariamente que a música seja arrastada.Glissando ou PortamentoA contínua, ininterrupta deslize de uma nota para o próximo, que inclui entre as alturas. Alguns instrumentos, como o trombone, tímpanos, instrumentos de corda não trastes, os instrumentos electrónicos e da voz humana pode fazer este deslize continuamente (portamento), enquanto outros instrumentos como o piano ou o malho instrumentos borrar a passos discretos entre o início e notas de fim de imitar uma lâmina contínua (glissando).QuiálterasUma série de notas de duração irregular são realizados durante a vigência de um determinado número de notas de valor de tempo regular, por exemplo, cinco notas tocadas na duração normal de quatro notas, sete notas tocadas na duração normal de dois, três notas tocadas no a duração normal de quatro. Quiálteras são nomeados de acordo com o número de notas irregulares, por exemplo, duplets, trigêmeos,
quadrigêmeos, etc
AcordeVárias notas soavam simultaneamente ("sólido" ou "bloco"), ou em sucessão ("quebrado"). Note-acordes Dois são chamados díade;-acordes nota três são chamados tríades. Um acorde pode conter qualquer número de notas.
Arpejo acordeUm acorde com as notas tocadas em rápida sucessão, geralmente ascendente, cada nota a ser sustentado que os outros são jogados.
[editar]Dynamics
Ver artigo principal: Dynamics (música)
Dynamics são indicadores da intensidade ou volume relativo de uma linha musical.PianissimissimoExtremamente macio. Muito raramente se vê uma dinâmica mais suave do que isso, que são especificadas com adicionalps.PianíssimoMuito macio. Normalmente, a indicação mais suaves em uma música, apesar de dinâmica mais macia são geralmente especificados com adicional ps.
PianoSoft. Normalmente, a indicação a mais usada.
Mezzo pianoLiteralmente, metade suave como piano.Mezzo ForteDa mesma forma, a metade tão alto quanto forte. mais comumente usado de mezzo-piano. Se não aparece dinâmico,mezzo-forte é assumido como sendo a dinâmica prevalecente nível.
ForteLoud. Usado como muitas vezes como piano para indicar contraste.
FortíssimoMuito alto. Normalmente, a indicação mais alto em uma peça, embora a dinâmica mais alto são muitas vezes referidos adicionais com f(s, como fortississimo - ver abaixo).FortissimissimoExtremamente alto. Muito raramente se vê uma dinâmica mais forte do que isso, que são especificados com mais fs.SforzandoLiteralmente "forçado", denota um acento, abrupta feroz em um único som ou acorde. Quando por extenso, aplica-se a seqüência de sons e acordes sob ou sobre a qual é colocado.CrescendoUm aumento gradual do volume.Pode ser prorrogado em conformidade com muitas notas para indicar que o volume aumenta progressivamente durante a passagem.
DiminuendoTambém decrescendoA diminuição gradual do volume. Pode ser estendida da mesma forma como crescendo.
Dinâmicas comumente utilizadas como base esses valores. Por exemplo, "piano pianíssimo"
(representada como 'ppp ' significado tão baixinho que é quase inaudível, e fortissimo-forte
('FFF '), que significa extremamente alto. Em alguns países europeus, a utilização desta
dinâmica foi praticamente banida como pondo em risco a audição dos executantes.[2] A s
"pequeno" na frente das notações dinâmico significa "subito", e significa que a dinâmica deve
ser alterada para a nova notação rapidamente. Subito é comumente usado com sforzandos,
mas todos outras notações, mais comumente como sff "(subitofortissimo) ou" spp
"(subitopianissimo).Forte-pianoA seção de música em que a música deveria inicialmente ser jogado alto (forte), logo em seguida suavemente (piano).
Outro valor que raramente aparece é niente, que significa "nada". Isso pode ser usado no final
de um diminuendo para indicar 'fade out para nada ".
[editar]marcas de Articulação
Articulações (ou acentos) especificar como notas individuais devem ser executadas dentro de
uma frase ou passagem. Eles podem ser ajustadas através da combinação de mais do que um
símbolo, sobre ou sob uma nota. Eles também podem aparecer em conjunto com as marcas
fraseado acima.
StaccatoIsso indica que a nota é para ser jogado inferior simbolizada, geralmente metade do valor, o restante do valor da métrica é então mudo. Staccato marcas podem, assim, aparecer em notas de qualquer valor, diminuindo a sua duração real executada sem acelerar a música em si.
StacatíssimoIndica um longo silêncio depois da nota (como descrito acima), tornando a nota muito curto. Geralmente aplicada a semínimas ou menos. (No passado, esta marcação foi mais do significado ambíguo: às vezes foi usado de forma intercambiável com staccato, e às vezes indicado sotaque e não staccato. Esses usos são agora quase extinta, mas ainda aparecem em alguns pontos.)
sotaque DynamicA nota é tocada mais forte ou com um ataque mais difícil de todas as notas em torno átono. Pode aparecer em notas de qualquer duração.
TenutoEste símbolo tem vários significados. Ele normalmente indica que ele seja jogado para o seu valor total, ou um pouco mais. Isso pode indicar um ataque separado na nota, ou pode indicar legato, em contraste com o ponto de staccato.Combinando um tenuto com um staccato ponto indica um ligeiro descolamento ("portato"ou"mezzo staccato").
MarcatoA nota é tocada muito alto ou com um ataque muito mais forte do que qualquer unaccented notas envolventes. Pode aparecer em notas de qualquer duração. Também chamado petit chapeau.
-Pizzicato de mão esquerda ou nota ParadoUma nota em um instrumento de cordas, onde a corda é puxada com a mão esquerda (a mão que normalmente deixa as cordas) e não cedeu. No chifre, esse acento indica uma "parada" nota (a nota tocada com a mão parada empurrou ainda mais para dentro do pavilhão da trompa).
Snap pizzicatoEm um instrumento de cordas, uma nota tocada por esticar uma corda para fora da armação do instrumento e deixá-lo ir, tornando-se "pressão" contra o quadro. Também conhecido como Bartók pizzicato.
Harmônico natural ou nota OpenEm um instrumento de cordas, que denota uma natural harmônica é para ser jogado. Em um instrumento de bronze valvulado, denota que a nota é para ser jogado "open" (sem qualquer redução de válvula, ou não muda). Na música de órgão, isso denota que a nota pedal é para ser jogado com o calcanhar.
Fermata (Pausa)Uma nota sustentada indefinidamente ou acorde. Geralmente aparece sobre todas as partes no mesmo local métrica em um pedaço, para mostrar uma parada no tempo. Ela pode ser colocada acima ou abaixo da nota.
Até arco ou Sull'arcoEm um instrumento de cordas, a nota é tocada enquanto o arco para cima. Em um instrumento de cordas dedilhadas jogado com um plectro ou escolher (como uma guitarra tocada pickstyle ou um bandolim), a nota é tocada com um movimento ascendente. Na notação órgão, essa marcação indica a tocar pedal nota com o dedo.
Down arco ou arco GiùComo sull'arco, exceto o arco é desenhado para baixo. Em um instrumento de cordas dedilhadas jogado com um plectroou escolher (como uma guitarra tocada pickstyle ou um bandolim), a nota é tocada com um descendente. Além disso, observe na notação do órgão, essa marcação indica a tocar nota pedal com o calcanhar.
[editar]Ornamentos
Enfeites modificar o padrão de altura das notas individuais.
TrinadoUma alternância rápida entre a nota especificada ea próxima nota mais alta (de acordo com a armadura de clave) no prazo de sua duração. Também chamado de agitar ". Quando seguido por uma linha ondulada horizontal, este símbolo indica uma extensão, ou em execução, trinado. Em muita música, o trinado começa na nota superior auxiliares.
MordentRapidamente tocar a nota principal, a próxima nota mais alta (de acordo com a armadura de clave), em seguida, retornar à nota principal para a duração restante. Em muita música, o mordente começa na nota auxiliares, ea alternância entre as duas notas podem ser prorrogados.
Mordent (invertida)Rapidamente tocar a nota principal, o semitom abaixo, em seguida, retornar à nota principal para a duração restante. Em muita música, o mordente começa na nota auxiliares, ea alternância entre as duas notas podem ser prorrogados.
VezQuando colocadas diretamente acima da nota, o turn (também conhecido como gruppetto) indica uma seqüência de nota auxiliar superior, a nota principal, menor nota auxiliar, e um retorno à nota principal. Quando colocado à direita da nota, a nota principal é tocada primeiro, seguido pelo padrão acima. Uma linha vertical colocado através da vez inverte a ordem das notas auxiliares.
ApojaturaA primeira metade da duração da nota principal tem o tom da nota graça (o primeiro de dois terços se a nota principal é uma nota pontilhada).
AcciaccaturaO acciaccatura é de muito curta duração, como se escovados sobre a maneira com a nota principal, que recebe praticamente todo o seu tempo anotado.
[editar]Oitavas
alta OttavaNotas abaixo da linha pontilhada são tocadas uma oitava acima anotado.
bassa OttavaNotas abaixo da linha pontilhada são tocadas uma oitava abaixo do anotado. A notação ea linha tracejada são frequentemente escritos abaixo da pauta, em vez de acima, como mostrado aqui.
alta QuindicesimaNotas abaixo da linha pontilhada são tocadas duas oitavas mais alto.
bassa QuindicesimaNotas abaixo da linha pontilhada são tocadas duas oitavas mais baixas. A notação ea linha tracejada são frequentemente escritos abaixo da pauta, em vez de acima, como mostrado aqui.
[editar]Repetição e codas
TrêmuloUma nota rápida repetido. Se a vibração é entre duas notas, então eles são jogados em alternância rápida. O número de barras através da haste (ou o número de barras diagonais entre duas notas) indica a freqüência com que a nota deve ser repetida (ou alternada). Como demonstrado aqui, a nota deve ser repetida em um demisemiquaver (note trigésimo segundo) de taxa.
Na notação de percussão, vibrações são usadas para indicar rolos, logram,
e arrasta. Normalmente, uma linha de tremolo em uma única nota suficientemente
curto (como um XVI) é jogado como um estorvo, e uma combinação de três linhas-
tronco e indica um tremolo tempos rolo duplo (ou um único rolo de curso, no caso
de tímpanos, percussão martelo e alguns instrumentos de percussão desafinados
como triângulo e bumbo), por um período equivalente à duração da nota.Em outros
casos, a interpretação de vibrações é muito variável e deve ser examinada pelo diretor
e performers.
Repita sinaisColoque uma passagem que é para ser jogado mais de uma vez. Se não houver nenhum sinal de repetir à esquerda, o sinal de repetição direito envia o performer de volta para o início da peça ou o bar mais próximo de casal.
marcas SímileDenotam que os grupos anteriores de batidas e medidas devem ser repetidas. Nos exemplos aqui, o primeiro geralmente significa repetir o compasso anterior, ea segunda geralmente significa repreat últimos dois bares.
Volta suportes (1 e 2 finalizações, ou 1 e 2 barras de tempo)Denotam que uma passagem repetida deve ser tocada de forma diferente sobre playings diferente.
Da capoDiz o artista a repetir a reprodução da música desde o seu início. Isso é seguido por al fine, o que significa a repetir a palavra multa e parar, ou al coda, o que significa repetir o sinal coda e, em seguida saltar para a frente.
Dal segnoDiz o artista a repetir a reprodução da música a partir da próxima segno. Isso é seguido por al fine ou al coda assim como com capo.
SegnoMark usado com dal segno.
CodaIndica um salto em frente na música à sua passagem final, marcada com o mesmo sinal. Só podem ser utilizadas após o jogo através de um DS al coda ou DC al coda.
[editar]Instrumento de notação específica
[editar]Guitar
A guitarra tem um braço direito do sistema de notação dedilhado derivados dos nomes dos
dedos em espanhol. Eles são escritos acima, abaixo ou ao lado da nota a que estão
ligados. Eles têm a seguinte redacção:
Símbolo Espanhol Inglês
p pulgar polegar
Eu índice índice
m medio meio
um anular anel
c, x, e, q, um meñique pouco
[editar]Piano
[editar]marcas Pedal
Estas marcas aparecem no pedal de música para instrumentos com pedais sustentar, como
o piano, vibrafone e carrilhões.
Engage pedalDiz o jogador para colocar o pedal para baixo.
Lançamento pedalDiz o jogador para deixar o pedal para cima.
Variável pedal marcaMais precisamente, indicam o uso preciso do pedal de sustain. O prolongamento da linha inferior indica que o jogador mantenha o pedal pressionado para sustentar todas as notas abaixo do qual ele aparece. Invertido forma de "V" (/ \) indica o pedal deve ser liberado momentaneamente e, em seguida deprimido novamente.
[editar]Notação piano Outros
md / MD / rH /rh / RH
Destra mano (italiano)principal droite (francês)Mão Rechte (alemão)mão direita (Inglês)
ms / MS / mg /MG / LH / LH /LH
mano sinistra (italiano)Main Gauche (francês)Mão Linke (Alemanha)mão esquerda (Inglês)
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Finger identificações:1 Thumb =Índice = 23 = Médio4 Anel =5 = Little
[editar]Veja também
Articulação (música)Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre
Exemplos de articulações. Da esquerda para a direita: staccato, Stacatíssimo, martellato, Marcato,tenuto.
Articulações de legato de Stacatíssimo
Na música, a articulação refere-se à direção técnica de execução ou que afeta a transição ou
de continuidade na única nota ou entre várias notas ou sons.
Há muitos tipos diferentes de articulação, cada um tendo um efeito diferente sobre a forma
como a nota é tocada. Algumas marcas incluem a articulação calúnia, marca
frase, staccato,Stacatíssimo, sotaque, sforzando, rinforzandoelegato. Cada articulação é
representado por um símbolo diferente colocados acima ou abaixo da nota (dependendo de
sua posição na pauta).
Woodwind e bronze instrumentos geralmente articulado por tonguing, o uso da língua para
quebrar o fluxo de ar dentro do instrumento.Curvou-se instrumentos de cordas, uso
diferentecurvando técnicas para atingir diferentes articulações.
Quando marcas de staccato são combinados com uma ligadura, o resultado é portato, também
conhecida como legato articulado.marcações Tenuto em uma ligação são chamados (para
curvou cordas) arcos gancho. Este nome é também menos comumente aplicada a staccato ou
martellato (martelé) marcações.
Ornament (music)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In music, ornaments are musical flourishes that are not necessary to carry the overall line of the
melody (or harmony), but serve instead to decorate or "ornament" that line. Many ornaments are
performed as "fast notes" around a central note. The amount of ornamentation in a piece of music
can vary from quite extensive (it was often so in the Baroque period) to relatively little or even none.
The word agrément is used specifically to indicate the French Baroque style of ornamentation. A very
important function of the ornamentation in early and baroque keyboard music was as a way of
creating a longer sustain of the note on a harpsichord, clavichord, or virginal, such instruments being
unable to sustain a long note in the same manner as a pipe organ.
In the baroque period, it was common for performers to improvise ornamentation on a given melodic
line. A singer performing a da capo aria, for instance, would sing the melody relatively unornamented
the first time, but decorate it with additional flourishes the second time. Improvised ornamentation
continues to be part of the Irish musical tradition[1], particularly in sean-nós singing but also
throughout the wider tradition as performed by the best players.
Ornamentation may also be indicated by the composer. A number of standard ornaments (described
below) are indicated with standard symbols in music notation, while other ornamentations may be
appended to the staff in small notes, or simply written out normally. Frequently, a composer will have
his or her own vocabulary of ornaments, which will be explained in a preface, much like a code.
A grace note is a note written in smaller type, with or without a slash through it, to indicate that
its note value does not count as part of the total time value of the measure. Alternatively, the term
may refer more generally to any of the small notes used to mark some other ornament
(seeAppoggiatura, below), or in association with some other ornament’s indication (see Trill, below),
regardless of the timing used in the execution.
In Spain, these ornaments were called "diferenzias", and can be traced back to the early 16th
century, when the first books with music for the guitar were produced.
Contents
[hide]
1 Baroque/Western Classical
o 1.1 Trill
o 1.2 Mordent
o 1.3 Turn (also known as Gruppetto)
o 1.4 Appoggiatura
o 1.5 Acciaccatura
o 1.6 Glissando
2 In Baroque Music
3 Renaissance / Early Baroque
4 Indian Classical Music
5 In non-Classical music
o 5.1 Rock and pop
o 5.2 Jazz
o 5.3 Celtic Music
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
[edit]Baroque/Western Classical
[edit]Trill
Main article: trill (music)
A trill is a rapid alternation between an indicated note and the one above, also known as the shake.
Usually, if the music containing the trill was written before 1800 the trill is played by starting a note
above the written note. If the music was written after 1800 then the trill is usually played by starting
on the note written and going up to the note above. A printed score will often indicate which
interpretation is to be used, either in the preface to the score or by using a grace note.
Sometimes it is expected that the trill will end with a turn (by sounding the note below rather than the
note above the principal note, immediately before the last sounding of the principal note), or some
other variation. Such variations are often marked with a few grace notes following the note that bears
the trill indication. The trill is indicated by either a or a ~~, with the ~ representing the length of
the trill, above the staff. In Baroque music, the trill is sometimes indicated with a + (plus) sign above
or below the note.
Note: This information is correct, except that the + is really a lower-case T written with the crossbar
bisecting the vertical stroke. Trills can be notated as the squiggle, tr, t, or +. See corrections on other
ornaments, however, below.
Second Note: In french horn music, it is commonplace for a stopped horn part to be noted with a plus
sign over each note.
[edit]Mordent
The mordent is thought of as a rapid single alternation between an indicated note, the note above
(called the upper mordent, inverted mordent, or pralltriller) or below (called the lower
mordent or mordent), and the indicated note again.
The upper mordent (which was never used during the Baroque period)[2] is indicated by a short
squiggle (which may also indicate a trill); the lower mordent is the same with a short vertical line
through it:
This can also be called a turn.
As with the trill, the exact speed with which the mordent is performed will vary according to the tempo
of the piece, but at moderate tempi the above might be executed as follows:
Mordents
First bar of Goldberg Variation
7, first played with lower
mordents, then without — 134
KB
Problems listening to this file? See media help.
Confusion over the meaning of the unadorned word mordent has led to the modern
terms upper and lower mordent being used, rather than mordent and inverted mordent. Practice,
notation, and nomenclature vary widely for all of these ornaments, that is to say, whether, by
including the symbol for a mordent in a musical score, a composer intended the direction of the
additional note (or notes) to be played above or below the principal note written on the sheet music
varies according to when the piece was written, and in which country. This article as a whole
addresses an approximate nineteenth-century standard.
In the Baroque period, a Mordant (the German or Scottish equivalent of mordent) was what later
came to be called an inverted mordent and what is now often called a lower mordent. In the 19th
century, however, the name mordent was generally applied to what is now called theupper mordent.
Although mordents are now thought of as just a single alternation between notes, in the Baroque
period a Mordant may sometimes have been executed with more than one alternation between the
indicated note and the note below, making it a sort of inverted trill. Mordents of all sorts might
typically, in some periods, begin with an extra inessential note (the lesser, added note), rather than
with theprincipal note as shown in the examples here. The same applies to trills, which in Baroque
and Classical times would standardly begin with the added, upper note. A lower inessential note may
or may not be chromatically raised (that is, with a natural, a sharp, or even a double sharp) to make it
just one semitone lower than the principal note.
[edit]Turn (also known as Gruppetto)
A short figure consisting of the note above the one indicated, the note itself, the note below the one
indicated, and the note itself again. It is marked by a mirrored S-shape lying on its side above the
staff.
The details of its execution depend partly on the exact placement of the turn mark. The following
turns:
might be executed like this:
The exact speed at which the notes of a turn are executed can vary, as can its rhythm. The question
of how a turn is best executed is largely one of context, convention, and taste. The lower and upper
added notes may or may not be chromatically raised (see mordent).
An inverted turn (the note below the one indicated, the note itself, the note above it, and the note
itself again) is usually indicated by putting a short vertical line through the normal turn sign, though
sometimes the sign itself is turned upside down.
[edit]Appoggiatura
See also Nonchord tone#Appoggiatura.
Appoggiatura (English pronunciation: /ə ˌp ɒ d ʒ əˈtj ʊ ərə/ , Italian: [appodd ʒ aˈtuːra] ) comes from the
Italian verb appoggiare, "to lean upon". The long appoggiatura is important melodically and
often suspends the principal note by taking away the time-value of the appoggiatura prefixed to
it (generally half the time value of the note, though in triple time, for example, it might receive
two thirds of the time). The added note (the unessential note) is one degree higher or lower
than the principal note; and, if lower, it may or may not be chromatically raised (see mordent).
The appoggiatura is written as a grace note prefixed to a principal note and printed in small
character, usually without the oblique stroke:
This would be executed as follows:
Appoggiatura
A passage with two phrases
ending in appoggiaturas,
followed by these phrases
without them — 160 KB
Problems listening to this file? See media help.
Appoggiaturas are also usually on the strong or strongest beat of the resolution and are
approached by a leap and leave by a step. Musicians’ mnemonic: the appoggiatura is longer
than the acciaccatura because it is podgy. This notation has also been used to mark an accent
in the articulation of vocal music, meaning that the grace note should be emphasized, for
example in Haydn’s Missa Brevis in G-dur, fifth bar for soprano and tenor voices.
So-called unaccented appoggiaturas are also quite common in many periods of music, even
though they are disapproved of by some early theorists (for example CPE Bach, in his Versuch
über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen). While not being identical with the acciaccatura (see
below), these are almost always quite short, and take their time from the allocation for the note
that precedes them. They are more likely to be seen as full-size notes in the score, rather than
in small character – at least in modern editions.
[edit]Acciaccatura
Acciaccatura (English pronunciation: /ə ˌt ʃ ækəˈtj ʊ ərə/ , Italian: [att ʃ akkaˈtuːra] ) comes from the Italian
verb acciaccare, "to crush". The acciaccatura(sometimes called short appoggiatura) is
perhaps best thought of as a shorter, less melodically significant, variant of the long
appoggiatura, where the delay of the principal note is scarcely perceptible – theoretically
subtracting no time at all. It is written using a grace note (often a quaver, or eighth note), with
an oblique stroke through the stem:
The exact interpretation of this will vary according to the tempo of the piece, but the following is
possible:
Whether the note should be played before or on the beat is largely a question of taste and
performance practice. Exceptionally, the acciaccatura may be notated in the bar preceding the
note to which it is attached, showing that it is to be played before the beat. (This guide to
practice is unfortunately not available, of course, if the principal note does not fall at the
beginning of the measure.)
The implication also varies with the composer and the period. For example, Mozart’s and
Haydn’s long appoggiaturas are – to the eye – indistinguishable from Mussorgsky’s and
Prokofiev’s before-the-beat acciaccaturas. In some cases on instruments that permit it, such as
the piano, the acciaccatura is sounded simultaneously with the principal note, and then
immediately released.
[edit]Glissando
Main article: Glissando
A glissando is a slide from one note to another, signified by a wavy line connecting the two
notes. All of the intervening diatonic or chromatic (depending on instrument and context) are
heard, albeit very briefly. In this way, the glissando differs from portamento.
[edit]In Baroque Music
Ornaments in Baroque music take on a different meaning. Most ornaments occur on the beat,
and use diatonic intervals more exclusively than ornaments in later periods do. While any table
of ornaments must give a strict presentation, consideration has to be given to the tempo and
note length, since at rapid tempos it would be difficult or impossible to play all of the notes that
are usually required. One realisation of some common Baroque ornaments is set in the
following table, made by J.S. Bach’s father, Johann Ambrosius Bach [2] :
[edit]Renaissance / Early Baroque
From Silvestro Ganassi’s treatise in 1535 we have instruction and examples of how musicians
of renaissance and early baroque decorated their music with improvised ornaments. Michael
Praetorius spoke warmly of musicians’ "sundry good and merry pranks with little runs/leaps".
Until the last decade of the 16th century the emphasis is on divisions, also known
as diminutions, passaggi (in Italian) or glosas (by Ortiz) - a way to decorate a simple cadence
or interval with extra shorter notes. These start as simple passing notes, progress to step-wise
additions and in the most complicated cases are rapid passages of equal valued notes -
virtuosic flourishes. There are rules for designing them, to make sure that the original structure
of the music is left intact. Towards the end of this period the divisions detailed in the treatises
contain more dotted and other uneven rhythms and leaps of more than one step at a time.
Starting with Archilei (1589), the treatises bring in a new set of expressive devices
called graces alongside the divisions. These have a lot more rhythmic interest and are filled
with affect as composers took much more interest in text portrayal. It starts with
the trillo and cascate, and by the time we reach Francesco Rognoni (1620) we are also told
about fashionable ornaments: portar la
voce, accento, tremolo, gruppo,esclamatione and intonatio.[3]
Key treatises detailing ornamentation:
Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego Opera intitulata Fontegara..., Venice 1535
Diego Ortiz Trattado de glosas..., Rome, 1553
Girolamo Dalla Casa Il vero modo diminuir..., Venice 1584
Giovanni Bassano Ricercate, passaggi et cadentie..., Venice 1585
Riccardo Rognoni Passaggi per potersi essercitare nel diminuire, 1592
Giovanni Luca Conforto Breve et facile maniera...passaggi, Rome 1593
Giovanni Battista Bovicelli Regole, passaggi di musica madrigali e motetti passaggiati,
Venice 1594
Aurelio Virgiliano Il Dolcimelo, c.1600
Francesco Rognoni Selva de varii passaggi..., 1620
Giovanni Battista Spadi da Faenza Libro de passaggi ascendenti e descendenti, Venice,
1624
[edit]Indian Classical Music
Indian classical music is based on ragas, a modal system similar to Jazz with scales of 5 to 7
main notes (beside the microtones) in the ascending and descending form. Its origin is dated
back to the Vedas, earliest documentations exist till 2000 BC. Indian classical music has
evolved and split into two main parts: North Indian Classical (Hindustani) and South Indian
Classical (Carnatic).
In Indian music generally and especially in Raga Sangeet staccato or isolated notes are almost
unheard. With the exception of some very view instruments, the Indian notes (swaras) are not
of static nature. Each swara is linked with its preceding or succeeding note. Such an extra note
(or grace note) known as Kan-Swaras set up the basis of all kind of alankars (Sanskrit:
decoration with ornaments, ornaments of sound (shabd-alankar) or ornaments of words).
These ornaments of ragas, Alankar is essential for the beauty of raga melodies. The
term Alankar can be found in ancient texts. One of the earliest treatises is
the Natyashastra written by the sage Bharata (between 200 BC and 200 AD), later
on Alankaras are described in theSangeet Ratnakar of Sharangdev (13th century) and Sangeet
Parijat of Pandit Ahobal (17th century).
The classification of alankara-s is relating to the structure of ragas and the aesthetic aspect
(latter classification = Shabdalankar). All techniques refer to the sound production utilized by
the human voice, imitated by any kind of Indian instrument
(e.g. Sitar, Sarod, Shehnai,Sarangi, Santoor, etc.).
The variations of a raga performance within a defined frame of compositorial rules and
reglements using the different types of Alankara-s can be termed as whole simply as alankar.
Different types of alankars exist,
e.g. Meend, Kan, Sparsh, Krintan, Andolan, Gamak, Kampit (or Kampan), Khatka (or Gitkari), Z
amzama,Murki and combination of alankars in Indian classical performances.
[edit]In non-Classical music
[edit]Rock and pop
Ornamentation is also used in popular music such as rock and pop. Rock piano playing has
incorporated many ornaments from early 1900s blues piano styles such as boogie-woogie.
Improvised ornaments in rock solos or instrumental melody lines are often idiomatic to specific
instruments. Electric guitar players use a variety of ornaments that are specific to their
instrument, such as the hammer-on and the pull-off, both of which can resemble a trill.
While rock and pop are typically learned "by ear"[dubious – discuss], with the arrangements fleshed out
with improvisation[dubious – discuss], the style also includes notated music, particularly in arranged
music for larger ensembles. This notated music uses some of the most-used "Classical"
ornaments, such as trills and mordents.
[edit]Jazz
Jazz music incorporates a number of ornaments, which can be divided into improvised
ornaments, which are added by performers during their solo extemporizations, and written
ornaments. Improvised ornaments are often idiomatic to specific instruments. The Hammond
organ playing in the jazz subgenre of organ trio soul jazz often features trills which outline the
harmony of a chord, glisses up or down the keyboard, and turn-like decorations. Saxophone
players may decorate a simple melody line with turns, grace notes, and short glissandos
created with the mouth and the reed.
While jazz is substantially based upon improvisation, the style also includes notated music,
particularly in music for larger ensembles such as big bands. Small ensembles may also use
notated music for part of their performances, in arrangements of a tune’s main theme. Notated
jazz music incorporates most of the standard "Classical" ornaments, such as trills, grace notes,
and mordents. As well, written jazz notation may also include other ornaments, such as "dead"
or "ghost" notes (a percussive sound, notated by an "X"), glissandos (a portamento between
notes written with a long line), or an instruction to "fill" part of a bar with an embellishment
(notated with diagonal slashes in the bar)
[edit]Celtic Music
Ornamentation is a major distinguishing characteristic of Irish, Scottish, and Cape
Breton music. A singer, fiddler, flautist, tin whistler, piperor a player of another instrument may
add grace notes, slides, rolls, doubling, mordents, drones, trebles, or a variety of other
ornaments to a given melody.
PortatoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Portato (Italian, past participle of portare, "to carry") in music denotes slurred staccato and is notated
by adding a slur to staccato notes.
Portato is actually articulated legato, where the notes are played almost legato. Each portato note is
'carried' to the next note.
Portato sometimes is confused with portamento, but it is a completely different entity. By
playing portato the music gets 'dignity', 'importance' or a clear pace. Portato was a common way of
playing accompanying lines in baroque music, although it was not written in the score. In Classical
and Romantic music the portato notation with slurs and dots is more common.
Accent (music)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article does not cite any references or sources.Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved. (December 2007)
In music, an accent is an emphasis placed on a particular note, either as a result of its context or
specifically indicated by an accent mark. Accents contribute to the articulation and prosody of a
performance of a musical phrase. Compared to surrounding notes:
A dynamic accent or stress accent is an emphasis using louder sound, typically most
pronounced on the attack of the sound.
A tonic accent is an emphasis on a note by virtue of being higher in pitch.
An agogic accent is an emphasis by virtue of being longer in duration.
Accents which do not correspond to the stressed beats of the prevailing meter are said to be
syncopated (See syncopation).
Contents
[hide]
1 Agogic accents
2 Accent marks
3 Anti-accent marks
4 See also
[edit]Agogic accents
There are four kinds of agogic accent:
Longer notated duration of a note, for example, a half note among quarter notes.
Extended duration of a note within its full time value (without altering the tempo). For example,
players of organ and harpsichord (which don't afford the use of dynamic accents) can emphasize
one of a sequence of staccato quarter notes by making it less staccato.
Extended duration of a note with the effect of temporarily slowing down the tempo.
Delayed onset of a note.
[edit]Accent marks
In music notation, an accent mark indicates a louder dynamic to apply to a single note, or
an articulation mark. The most common is the horizontal accent, the fourth symbol in the diagram
above; this is the symbol that most musicians mean when they say accent mark. The vertical accent,
third in the diagram, may be stronger or weaker than the horizontal accent; composers have never
been consistent in using these markings. The vertical accent has many informal names such as a
teepee, housetop, or mamba-jamba. In most musical works this type of accent is meant to be played
more forcefully and usually shorter. The remaining marks typically shorten a note.
1. Staccato, the first symbol shown above, indicates that the last part of a note should be
silenced to create separation between it and the following note. The duration of a staccato
note may be about half as long as the note value would indicate, although the tempo and
performers' taste varies this quite a bit.
2. The staccatissimo, shown second, is usually interpreted as shorter than the staccato, but
composers up to the time of Mozart used these symbols interchangeably.
3. The third one shown, the vertical accent, is played with the same dynamics as a regular
accent mark but condensed into about half the original length of the note (depending on
style, song, preference, etc.), essentially a combination of accent and staccato. This type of
accent is also known as marcato.
4. The fourth mark shown, the Accent mark, indicates that the marked note should have an
emphasized beginning and then taper off rather quickly.
5. The tenuto mark, shown fifth above, indicates that a note is to be separated with a little
space from surrounding notes. This separation may be enough to emphasize the note, or it
may have to be played a little louder, at the discretion of the player. The tenuto mark also
indicates that the note should be played for its full value - not cut off earlier. Sometimes
these symbols are used in combination.
Even when these symbols are absent, experienced musicians will introduce the appropriate gesture
according to the style of the music.
[edit]Anti-accent marks
Percussion music in particular makes use as well of anti-accent marks, notated as follows:
1. slightly softer than surrounding notes: u (breve)
2. significantly softer than surrounding notes: ( ) (note head in parentheses)
3. much softer than surrounding notes: [ ] (note head in brackets)
[edit]See also
LegatoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about legato in music. For other uses, see Legato (disambiguation).
In musical notation the Italian word legato (literally meaning "tied together") indicates that musical
notes are played or sung smoothly and connected. That is, in transitioning from note to note, there
should be no intervening silence. Legato technique is required for slurredperformance, but unlike
slurring (as that term is interpreted for some instruments), legato does not forbid rearticulation. In
standard notation legato is indicated either with the word legato itself, or by a slur (a curved line)
under the notes that are to be joined in one legato group. Legato, like staccato, is a kind
of articulation. There is an intermediate articulation called either mezzo staccato or non-legato.
Contents
[hide]
1 Classical stringed instruments
2 Guitar
3 Synthesizers
4 Vocal music
5 Sources
6 Audio examples
7 See also
8 References
[edit]Classical stringed instruments
In music for classical stringed instruments, legato often refers to notes played with a full bow, that are
played with minimal silence between notes. This may be achieved through controlled wrist
movements of the bowing hand, often masked or enhanced with vibrato. Such a legato style of
playing may also be associated with the use of portamento.
[edit]Guitar
In guitar playing (apart from classical guitar) legato usually refers to fast notes, such as hammer-
ons and pull-offs. Use of legato technique with electric guitar will generally require playing notes that
are close and on the same string, following the first note with others that are played by the
techniques just mentioned. Many guitar virtuosos are well-versed in this technique, as it allows for
rapid and also "clean" runs. Multiple hammer-ons and pull-offs together are sometimes also referred
to colloquially as "rolls," a reference to the fluid sound of the technique. A rapid series of hammer-ons
and pull-offs between a single pair of notes is called a trill. When playing legato on guitar, it is
common for the musician to play more notes within a beat than the stated timing, i.e. playing 5
(a quintuplet) or 7 (a septuplet) notes against a quarter-note instead of the usual even number or
triplet. This gives the passage an unusual timing and when played slowly an unusual sound.
However, this is less noticeable by ear when played fast, as legato usually is. There is a fine line
between what is legato and what is two hand finger tapping, in some cases making the two
techniques harder to distinguish by ear. Generally, Legato is used to add a more fluid, smooth sound
to the passage being played.
[edit]Synthesizers
In synthesizers legato is a variation of monophonic operation. In contrast to monophonic mode where
every new note restarts the ADSR envelopes, in legato mode they are not if the previous note
remains depressed when the new note is played. This causes the initial transientfrom the attack and
decay phases to sound only once and the ADSR's to remain at sustain stage for the whole sequence
of notes until the final note is released.
[edit]Vocal music
In classical singing, legato can be defined as a string of sustained vowels with minimal interruption
from consonants. A good, smooth legato line is still a necessity for any successful classical singer. It
was a key characteristic of the bel canto style of vocalism that prevailed among voice teachers and
singers during the 18th century and the first four decades of the 19th century.
There are other, unorthodox viewpoints. For example Kendra Colton, a faculty member of the Voice
Department at Oberlin Conservatory, believes in separating phrases into two or three word units, and
adding large separatory articulations between each unit, and before any word starting with a vowel.
[edit]Sources
Elementary Rudiments of Music, by Barbara Wharram, Revised Edition edited by Kathleen Wood,
Publisher: Frederick Harris Music, 2005
[edit]Audio examples
TenutoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A tenuto marking on an individual note
Tenuto (Italian, past participle of tenere, "to hold") is a direction used in musical notation. Arguably, it
is one of the first directions to be used in music notation, as Notker of St. Gall (c.840 - 912) discusses
the use of the letter t in plainsong notation as meaning trahere vel tenere debere in one of his letters.
The precise meaning of tenuto is ambiguous: it can mean either hold the note in question its full
length (or longer, with slight rubato), or play the note slightly louder. In other words, the tenuto mark
may alter either the dynamics or the duration of a note. Either way, the marking indicates that a note
should receive emphasis.[1]
The marking's meaning may be affected when it appears in conjunction with other articulations.
When it appears in conjunction with a staccato dot, it has the same meaning as staccato dots under
a slur: non legato[2] or detached. When it appears with an accent mark, because the accent indicates
dynamics, the tenuto takes on its meaning of full or extra duration.[3] If there are a succession of
tenuto marks, one right after another, the performer would play the notes slightly detached and with a
slight accent as well. [4]
[edit]Notation
Tenuto can be notated three ways:
1. The word tenuto written above the passage to be played tenuto.
2. The abbreviation ten. written above the note or passage to be played tenuto.
3. A horizontal line, roughly the length of a notehead, placed immediately above or below the
note to be played tenuto (as in the image above).
[edit]See also
Modern musical symbols
[edit]References
1. ^ Tom Gerou and Linda Lusk, Essential Dictionary of Music Notation (1996)
2. ^ Kurt Stone, "Music Notation in the Twentieth Century" (1980)
3. ^ Tom Gerou and Linda Lusk, Essential Dictionary of Music Notation (1996)
4. ^ http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheory21.htm
David Fallows, "Tenuto." Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy. (Accessed 15 May 2006) [1]
MarcatoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Marcato (Italian for marked) is a form of staccato. True marcato entails performing the note with
a sforzando (sfz) attack and a sustain of two-thirds (occasionally three-quarters) of the original
written length at same or increased volume, to notes preceding or succeeding it. An audible counted
rest should follow (rest length: one-third to one quarter the marcato note written value)[1][2].
Marcato, as applied to other orchestral instruments, particularly winds, refers to a note articulation
which combines the fortepiano (fp) or sforzando (sfz) of the accented note with a duration reduced to
two-thirds of its written value (the other third being occupied by a rest); hence, in big-
band jazz circles the ^ symbol for marcato, which appears above the note, is also known as a "jazz
staccato." (A true staccato has a steady volume and a duration of half its written value; the other half
is occupied by a rest)[3].
According to author James Mark Jordan:
"the marcato' sound is characterised by a rhythmic thrust followed by a decay of the sound[4]"
Contents
[hide]
1 Stringed Instruments
2 Practitioners
3 Works
4 References
[edit]Stringed Instruments
The bowing technique on stringed instruments for marcato, is that each note is commenced with a
new attack or "explosive start" to each with a rest or "gap" between marcato notes. This creates a
major contrast in bowing articulation to the legato or connected manner of bowingarticulation where
one note is inaudibly joined to the next.
Best effect is achieved with an attack made with initial high friction incisive or "bite" (the bow-hair
grips the string with such friction that the bow is restricted from smoothly moving) followed by
immediate release and sustain made with a smooth, legato stroke. Marcato is best thought of as
halfway between a staccato and a legato note, where a staccato is played half the length of its'
written form.
[edit]Practitioners
Notable exemplars of marcato bowing are the performers Salvatore Accardo, David Oistrakh, Itzhak
Perlman, Ruggierio Ricci and the lateIsaac Stern. Yehudi Menuhin, Heifetz, Kreisler and their peers
did not perform staccato nor marcato as dramatically as the post-war generation of violinists.
[edit]Works
One strong etude (study) of marcato is in found in the common pedagogical (children's teacher) work
of H. E. Kayser Etude 14 of Opus 20:Thirty-Six Elementary and Progressive Studies For the Violin. In
the latter half of the twenty-first measure, marcato assai, or "very marked". The technique of this
Etude is as follows: lay the sides of the bow-hair onto the string, and for the first two consecutive
notes, are stroked in an accented manner. After that, the bow is lifted, for a pizzicato. Then each note
(not indicated with a dot above it) is performed in a style between legato and staccato.
FermataFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A fermata (also known as a hold, pause, colloquially a birdseye, before the 20th century a corona,
or as a grand pause when placed on a note of rest) is an element of musical notation indicating that
the note should be sustained for longer than its note value would indicate.
Exactly how much longer it is held is up to the discretion of the performer or
conductor, but twice as long is not unusual. It is usually printed above, but occasionally below
(upside down), the note that is to be held longer. Occasionally holds are also printed above rests or
barlines, indicating a pause of indefinite duration.
This symbol appears as early as the 15th century, and is quite common in the works
of Dufay and Josquin.
A fermata can occur at the end of a piece (or movement), or it can occur in the middle of a piece, and
be followed by either a brief rest or more notes.[1]
In chorale arrangements by Johann Sebastian Bach and other composers of the Baroque, the
fermata often only signifies the end of a phrase, where a breath is to be taken. In a
few organ compositions, the fermatas occur in different measures for the right and left hand, and for
the feet, which would make holding them impractical.
The word lunga (Shortened form of the Italian lunga pausa, meaning "long pause") is sometimes
added above a fermata to indicate a longer duration.
Some modern composers (including Francis Poulenc, Krzysztof Penderecki, and Luigi Nono) have
expanded the symbol's usage to indicate approximate duration, incorporating fermatas of different
sizes, square- and triangle-shaped fermatas, and so on, to indicate holds of different lengths. This is
not standard usage, however.
Dynamics (music)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Fortissimo" redirects here. For other meanings, see Fortissimo (disambiguation).
"Crescendo" redirects here. For other meanings, see Crescendo (disambiguation).
It has been suggested that Sotto voce be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
From left to right, the symbols for piano, mezzo-piano, mezzo-forte, and forte.
In music, dynamics normally refers to the volume of a sound ornote, but can also refer to every
aspect of the execution of a given piece, either stylistic (staccato, legato etc.) or functional (velocity).
The term is also applied to the written or printed musical notation used to indicate dynamics.
Dynamics do not indicate specific volume levels, but are meant to be played with reference to the
ensemble as a whole. Dynamic indications are derived from Italianwords.
Contents
[hide]
1 Relative loudness
o 1.1 Sudden changes
o 1.2 Gradual changes
2 Words/phrases indicating changes of dynamics
3 History
4 See also
5 References
[edit]Relative loudness
Teacher. "And what does ƒƒ mean?"
Pupil (after mature deliberation). "Fump-Fump."
Cartoon from Punch magazine October 6, 1920
The two basic dynamic indications in music are:
p or piano, meaning "soft".
ƒ or forte, meaning "loud".
More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by:
mp, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning "moderately soft".
mƒ, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning "moderately loud".
Beyond f and p, there are also
pp, standing for "pianissimo", and meaning "very soft",
ƒƒ, standing for "fortissimo", and meaning "very loud",
To indicate an even softer dynamic than pianissimo, ppp is marked, with the reading pianissimo
possibile ("softest possible"). The same is done on the loud side of the scale, with ƒƒƒ being "forte
possibile".
Note Velocity in terms of Dynamic's relative to Logic Pro 8 and other digital music software.
Few pieces contain dynamic designations with more than three ƒs (sometimes called "fortondoando")
or ps. In Holst's The Planets, ƒƒƒƒ occurs twice in Mars and once in Uranus often punctuated by
organ and ƒƒƒ occurs several times throughout the work. The Norman Dello JoioSuite for Piano ends
with a crescendo to a ƒƒƒƒ, and Tchaikovsky indicated a bassoon solopppppp in his Pathétique
symphony and ƒƒƒƒ in passages of his 1812 Overture and the 2nd movement of his 5th
symphony. ƒƒƒƒ is also found in a prelude by Rachmaninoff, op.3-2.Shostakovich even went as loud
as ƒƒƒƒƒ in his fourth symphony. Gustav Mahler, in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony,
gives the celli and basses a marking of ƒƒƒƒƒ, along with a footnote directing 'pluck so hard that the
strings hit the wood.' On another extreme, Carl Nielsen, in the second movement of his Symphony
No. 5, marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to ppppp. Another more extreme dynamic is
in György Ligeti's Devil's Staircase Etude, which has at one point a ƒƒƒƒƒƒ and progresses to
a ƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒ. At Ligeti's 9th etude, he uses pppppppp. In the baritone passage Era la notte from his
opera Otello Verdi uses pppp Steane (1971) and others suggest that such markings are in reality a
strong reminder to less than subtle singers to at least sing softly rather than an instruction to the
singer actually to attempt a pppp.
In music for marching band, passages louder than ƒƒƒ are sometimes colloquially referred to by
descriptive terms such as "blastissimo".
Dynamic indications are relative, not absolute. mp does not indicate an exact level of volume, it
merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be a little louder than p and a little
quieter than mf. Interpretations of dynamic levels are left mostly to the performer; in theBarber Piano
Nocturne, a phrase beginning pp is followed by a diminuendo leading to a mp marking. Another
instance of performer's discretion in this piece occurs when the left hand is shown to crescendo to
a ƒ, and then immediately after marked p while the right hand plays the melody ƒ. It has been
speculated that this is used simply to remind the performer to keep the melody louder than the
harmonic line in the left hand. In some music notation programs, there are default MIDI key velocity
values associated with these indications, but more sophisticated programs allow users to change
these as needed.
[edit]Sudden changes
Sudden changes in dynamics are notated by a s prefixing the new dynamic notation, and the prefix is
called subito. Subito is italian as most other dynamic notations, and translates into "suddenly"[1]. It is
usually used along with forzando (italian for "forcing"), to make subito forzando, or what most people
refer to as just sforzando. Other common uses of subito are before a regular dynamic notation, like
in spp, sf, or sff.
Subito forzando notation
Sforzando (or sforzato), indicates a forcefull, sudden accent and is abbreviated as sƒz. Regular
forzando (fz) indicates a forcefull note, but with a sligthly less sudden accent.
The fortepiano notation ƒp (or subito fortepiano; sƒp) indicates a forte followed immediately by piano.
This notation is usually used to give an unusual strong (and sudden if subito) accent.
One particularly noteworthy use of forzando is in the second movement of Joseph Haydn's Surprise
Symphony.Rinforzando, rƒz (literally "reinforcing") indicates that several notes, or a short phrase, are
to be emphasized. Rinforte (rƒ) is also available.
[edit]Gradual changes
In addition, there are words used to indicate gradual changes in volume. The two most common
are crescendo, sometimes abbreviated tocresc., meaning "get gradually louder";
and decrescendo or diminuendo, sometimes abbreviated to decresc. and dim. respectively,
meaning "get gradually softer". Signs sometimes referred to as "hairpins"[2] are also used to stand for
these words (See image). If the lines are joined at the left, then the indication is to get louder; if they
join at the right, the indication is to get softer. The following notation indicates music starting
moderately loud, then becoming gradually louder and then gradually quieter.
Hairpins are usually written below the staff, but are sometimes found above, especially in music
for singers or in music with multiple melody lines being played by a single performer. They tend
to be used for dynamic changes over a relatively short space of time,
while cresc.,decresc. and dim. are generally used for dynamic changes over a longer period.
For long stretches, dashes are used to extend the words so that it is clear over what time the
event should occur. It is not necessary to draw dynamic marks over more than a few bars,
whereas word directions can remain in force for pages if necessary.
For quicker changes in dynamics, molto cresc. and molto dim. are often used, where
the molto means a lot. Similarly, for slow changespoco a poco cresc. or cresc. poco a
poco and poco a poco dim. or dim. poco a poco are used, where poco a poco translates
as bit by bit.
A good example of a piece that uses both gradual changes and quick changes in dynamics
is Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's fantasy overtureRomeo and Juliet.
[edit]Words/phrases indicating changes of dynamics
(In Italian unless otherwise indicated)
al niente: to nothing; fade to silence
calando: becoming smaller
crescendo: becoming louder
dal niente: from nothing; out of silence
decrescendo or diminuendo: becoming softer
fortepiano: loud and accented and then immediately soft
fortissimo piano: very loud and then immediately soft
in rilievo: in relief (French en dehors: outwards); indicates that a particular instrument or
part is to play louder than the others so as to stand out over the ensemble. In the circle
of Arnold Schoenberg, this expression had been replaced by the letter "H" (for German,
"Hauptstimme"), with an added horizontal line at the letter's top, pointing to the right, the
end of this passage to be marked by the symbol " ┐ ".
perdendo or perdendosi: losing volume, fading into nothing, dying away
mezzoforte piano: moderately loud and them immediately soft
morendo: dying away (may also indicate a tempo change)
marcato: stressed, pronounced
pianoforte: soft and then immediately loud
sforzando piano: with marked and sudden emphasis, then immediately soft
sotto voce: in an undertone (whispered or unvoiced)[3]
smorzando: dying away
[edit]History
The Renaissance composer Giovanni Gabrieli was one of the first to indicate dynamics
in music notation, but dynamics were used sparingly by composers until the late 18th century.
Bach used the terms piano, più piano, and pianissimo (written out as words), and in some
cases it may be that ppp was considered to mean pianissimo in this period.
During the Baroque period, the use of terraced dynamics was common. This meant a sudden
change from full to soft, with no crescendo or decrescendo. The terraced dynamic was used for
musical effect, to create an echo effect: a passage is played forte, then repeated piano as an
echo. However, a major reason for the use of terraced dynamics is that the harpsichord, which
was the principal keyboard instrument of the period, was incapable of gradations of volume.
The harpsichord can be played either loud or soft, but not in between.
The fact that the harpsichord could play only terraced dynamics, and the fact that composers of
the period did not mark gradations of dynamics in their scores, has led to the "somewhat
misleading suggestion that baroque dynamics are 'terraced dynamics'," writes Robert
Donington.[4] In fact, baroque musicians constantly varied dynamics. "Light and shade must be
constantly introduced... by the incessant interchange of loud and soft," wrote Johann Joachim
Quantz in 1752.[5]
In the Romantic period, composers greatly expanded the vocabulary for describing dynamic
changes in their scores. Where Haydn and Mozart specified six levels (pp to ff), Beethoven
used also ppp and fff (the latter less frequently), and Brahms used a range of terms to
describe the dynamics he wanted. In the slow movement of the trio for violin, waldhorn and
piano (Opus 40), he uses the expressions ppp,molto piano, and quasi niente to express
different qualities of quiet.
Coda (music)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Coda (Italian for "tail", plural code) is a term used in music in a number of different senses, primarily
to designate a passage that brings a piece (or one movement thereof) to a conclusion.
Contents
[hide]
1 Coda as a section of a movement
o 1.1 The musical function of codas
2 In music notation
3 Cauda
4 Codetta
5 Codas in popular music
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
[edit]Coda as a section of a movement
The presence of a coda as a structural element in a music movement is especially clear in works
written in particular musical forms. In asonata form movement, the recapitulation section will, in
general, follow the exposition in its thematic content, while adhering to the homekey. The
recapitulation often ends with a passage that sounds like a termination, paralleling the music that
ended the exposition; thus, any music coming after this termination will be perceived as extra
material, i.e., as a coda. In works in variation form, the coda occurs following the last variation and
will be very noticeable as the first music not based on the theme.
Codas were commonly used in both sonata form and variation movements during the Classical era.
One of the ways that Beethoven extended and intensified Classical practice was to expand the coda
sections, producing a final section sometimes of equal musical weight to the foregoing exposition,
development, and recapitulation sections and completing the musical argument. For one famous
example, seeSymphony No. 8 (Beethoven).[1]
[edit]The musical function of codas
Charles Burkhart (2005, 12) suggests that the reason codas are common, even necessary, is that, in
the climax of the main body of a piece, a "particularly effortful passage", often an expanded phrase,
is often created by "working an idea through to its structural conclusions" and that, after all this
momentum is created, a coda is required to "look back" on the main body, allow listeners to "take it
all in", and "create a sense of balance."
[edit]In music notation
Coda sign
In music notation, the coda symbol, which resembles a set of crosshairs, is used as a navigation
marker, similar to the dal Segno sign. It is used where the exit from a repeated section is within that
section rather than at the end. The instruction "To Coda" indicates that, upon reaching that point
during the final repetition, the performer is to jump immediately to the separate section headed with
the coda symbol. For example, this can be used to provide a special ending for the final verse of a
song.
This symbol is encountered mainly in modern music, not works by classical composers such as
Haydn or Mozart.
[edit]Cauda
Cauda, the Latin root of coda, is used in the study of conductus of the 12th and 13th centuries. The
cauda was a long melisma on one of the last syllables of the text, repeated in each strophe. Conducti
were traditionally divided into two groups, conductus cum cauda and conductus sine cauda (Latin:
"conductus with cauda", "conductus without cauda"), based on the presence of the melisma. Thus,
the cauda provided a conclusionary role, also similar to the modern coda.
[edit]Codetta
Codetta (Italian for "little tail," the diminutive form) has a similar purpose to the coda, but on a
smaller scale, concluding a section of a work instead of the work as a whole. A typical codetta
concludes the exposition and recapitulation sections of a work in sonata form, following the second
(modulated) theme, or the closing theme (if there is one). Thus, in the exposition, it usually appears
in the secondary key, but, in the recapitulation, in the primary key. The codetta ordinarily closes with
a perfect cadence in the appropriate key, confirming the tonality. If the exposition is repeated, the
codetta is also, but sometimes it has its ending slightly changed, depending on whether it leads back
to the exposition or into the development sections.
[edit]Codas in popular music
Many songs in rock and other genres of popular music have sections identifiable as codas. A coda in
these genres is sometimes referred to as an outro and in jazz and modern church music as a tag.
See also fade out.
[edit]See also
Da capo
Dal segno
Epilogue
[edit]Notes
1. ^ For discussion of this coda, and of codas in general, see Rosen (1988).
[edit]References
Burkhart, Charles. "The Phrase Rhythm of Chopin's A-flat Major Mazurka, Op. 59, No. 2" in
Stein, Deborah (2005). Engaging Music: Essays in Music Analysis. New York: Oxford University
Press, ISBN 0-19-517010-5.
Rosen, Charles (1988) Sonata Forms, 2nd edition. New York: Norton.
This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now
in the public domain.
~
Exposition (music)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Sonata form. (Discuss)
In musical form and analysis, exposition is the initial presentation of the thematic material of
a musical composition, movement, or section. The use of the term generally implies that the material
will be developed or varied.
[edit]Exposition in classical sonata form
The term is most widely used[1] as an analytical convenience to denote a portion of a movement
identified as an example of classical tonalsonata form. The exposition typically establishes the
music's tonic key, and then modulates to, and ends in, the dominant.[2] If the exposition starts in a
minor key, it typically modulates to the relative major key. There are many exceptions — for example
the exposition of the first movement of Beethoven's Waldstein Sonata modulates from C major to the
mediant E major. The exposition may include identifiable musical
themes (whether melodic, rhythmic or chordal in character), and may develop them, but it is usually
the key relationships and the sense of "arrival" at the dominant that is used by analysts in identifying
the exposition. The exposition in classical symphonies is typically repeated, although there are many
examples where the composer does not specify such a repeat.
If the movement starts with an introductory section, this introduction is not usually analysed as being
part of the movement's exposition.
In many works of the Classical period and some of the Romantic era, the exposition is often
bracketed by repeat signs, indicating that it is to be played twice. This is something which is not
always done in concert from the 20th Century onwards.[3]
[edit]References
1. ^ William E. Grim, "The Musicalization of Prose: Prolegomena to the Experience of Literature in
Musical Form" Papers presented at the Second World Phenomenology Congress September 12
— 18, 1995, Guadalajara, Mexico, in Analecta Husserliana: The Yearbook of Phenomenological
Research LXIII (1998): 65. "The first section of a sonata form is called the exposition."
2. ^ William E. Grim, "The Musicalization of Prose: Prolegomena to the Experience of Literature in
Musical Form" Papers presented at the Second World Phenomenology Congress September 12
— 18, 1995, Guadalajara, Mexico, in Analecta Husserliana: The Yearbook of Phenomenological
Research LXIII (1998): 65. "It is in this section that there is harmonic movement away from the
primary tonal area to the secondary tonal area."
3. ^ Charles Michael Carroll, "Memories of Dohnányi" Perspectives on Ernst von Dohnányi, edited
by James A. Grymes. Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. (2005): 235
[show]v • d • e
Musical notation and development
[show]v • d • e
Musical form
This music theory article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
HarmonyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about musical harmony and harmonies. For other uses of the term, see Harmony
(disambiguation).
"Disharmony" redirects here. For the episode of Angel, see Disharmony (Angel).
The harmonious major triad is composed of three tones. Their frequency ratio corresponds approximately 6:5:4.
In real performances, however, the third is often larger than 5:4. The ratio 5:4 corresponds to an interval of 386
cents, but an equally tempered major third is 400 cents and a Pythagorean third with a ratio of 81:64 is 408
cents. Measurements of frequencies in good performances confirm that the size of the major third varies across
this range and can even lie outside it without sounding out of tune. Thus, there is no simple connection between
frequency ratios and harmonic function.
In music, harmony is the use of simultaneous pitches (tones, notes), or chords.[1] The study of
harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of
connection that govern them.[2] Harmony is often said to refer to the "vertical" aspect of music, as
distinguished from melodic line, or the "horizontal" aspect.[3] Counterpoint, which refers to the
interweaving of melodic lines, and polyphony, which refers to the relationship of separate
independent voices, are thus sometimes distinguished from harmony.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definitions, origin of term, and history of use
2 Historical rules
3 Types
4 Intervals
5 Chords and tension
6 Perception of harmony
7 Consonance and dissonance in balance
8 See also
9 References
o 9.1 Footnotes
o 9.2 Notations
10 External links
11 Further reading
[edit]Definitions, origin of term, and history of use
The term harmony derives from the Greek ἁρμονία (harmonía), meaning "joint, agreement, concord",
[4] from the verb ἁρμόζω (harmozo), "to fit together, to join".[5] The term was often used for the whole
field of music, while "music" referred to the arts in general.
In Ancient Greece, the term defined the combination of contrasted elements: a higher and lower
note.[6] Nevertheless, it is unclear whether the simultaneous sounding of notes was part of ancient
Greek musical practice; "harmonía" may have merely provided a system of classification of the
relationships between different pitches. In the Middle Ages the term was used to describe two pitches
sounding in combination, and in the Renaissance the concept was expanded to denote three pitches
sounding together.[6]
It was not until the publication of Rameau's 'Traité de l'harmonie' (Treatise on Harmony) in 1722 that
any text discussing musical practice made use of the term in the title, though that work is not the
earliest record of theoretical discussion of the topic. The underlying principle behind these texts is
that harmony sanctions harmoniousness (sounds that 'please') by conforming to certain pre-
established compositional principles.[7]
Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the
ambiguity of the term in modern use. Ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations
(for example the view that only "pleasing" concords may be harmonious) or from the point of view of
musical texture (distinguishing between "harmonic" (simultaneously sounding pitches) and
"contrapuntal" (successively sounding tones).[7] In the words of Arnold Whitall:
While the entire history of music theory appears to depend on just such a distinction between
harmony and counterpoint, it is no less evident that developments in the nature of musical
composition down the centuries have presumed the interdependence—at times amounting to
integration, at other times a source of sustained tension—between the vertical and horizontal
dimensions of musical space.—[7]
The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in
music theory. This is usually accounted for by the 'replacement' of horizontal (of contrapuntal) writing,
common in the music of the Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the 'vertical' element of
composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation.
As Carl Dahlhaus puts it:
It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony (Bach’s tonal counterpoint is surely no less
polyphonic than Palestrina’s modal writing) but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical
technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the (‘vertical’) structure
of chords but also their (‘horizontal’) movement. Like music as a whole, harmony is a process.—[8][9]
Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice may show bias
towards European (or Western) musical traditions. For example, South Asian art music
(Hindustani and Carnatic music) is frequently cited as placing little emphasis on what is perceived in
western practice as conventional 'harmony'; the underlying 'harmonic' foundation for most South
Asian music is the drone, a held open fifth (or fourth) that does not alter in pitch throughout the
course of a composition.[10] Pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration.
Nevertheless many other considerations of pitch are relevant to the music, its theory and its
structure, such as the complex system ofRāgas, which combines both melodic and modal
considerations and codifications within it.[11] So although intricate combinations of pitches sounding
simultaneously in Indian classical music do occur they are rarely studied as teleological harmonic
or contrapuntal progressions, which is the case with notated Western music. This contrasting
emphasis (with regard to Indian music in particular) manifests itself to some extent in the different
methods of performance adopted: in Indian Music improvisation takes a major role in the structural
framework of a piece,[12] whereas in Western Music improvisation has been uncommon since the end
of the 19th century,[13]. Where it does occur in Western music (or has in the past), the improvisation
will either embellish pre-notated music or, if not, draw from musical models that have previously been
established in notated compositions, and therefore employ familiar harmonic schemes.[14]
There is no doubt, nevertheless, that the emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and
the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias. The Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians (Oxford University Press) identifies this quite clearly:
In Western culture the musics that are most dependent on improvisation, such as jazz, have
traditionally been regarded as inferior to art music, in which pre-composition is considered
paramount. The conception of musics that live in oral traditions as something composed with the use
of improvisatory techniques separates them from the higher-standing works that use notation.—[15]
Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was
facilitated by this process of prior composition (which permitted the study and analysis by theorists
and composers alike of individual pre-constructed works in which pitches (and to some extent
rhythms) remained unchanged regardless of the nature of the performance).[16]
[edit]Historical rules
Some traditions of music performance, composition, and theory have specific rules of harmony.
These rules are often held to be based on natural properties such as Pythagorean tuning's law whole
number ratios ("harmoniousness" being inherent in the ratios either perceptually or in themselves)
or harmonics and resonances ("harmoniousness" being inherent in the quality of sound), with the
allowable pitches and harmonies gaining their beauty or simplicity from their closeness to those
properties. While Pythagorean ratios can provide a rough approximation of perceptual harmonicity,
they cannot account for cultural factors.[citation needed]
Early Western religious music often features parallel perfect intervals; these intervals would preserve
the clarity of the original plainsong. These works were created and performed in cathedrals, and
made use of the resonant modes of their respective cathedrals to create harmonies. As polyphony
developed, however, the use of parallel intervals was slowly replaced by the English style of
consonance that used thirds and sixths. The English style was considered to have a sweeter sound,
and was better suited to polyphony in that it offered greater linear flexibility in part-writing. Early
music also forbade usage of the tritone, as its dissonance was associated with the devil, and
composers often went to considerable lengths, via musica ficta, to avoid using it. In the newer triadic
harmonic system, however, the tritone became permissible, as the standardization of functional
dissonance made its use in dominant chords desirable.
Although most harmony comes about as a result of two or more notes being sounded
simultaneously, it is possible to strongly imply harmony with only one melodic line through the use
of arpeggios or hocket. Many pieces from the baroque period for solo string instruments, such as
Bach's Sonatas and partitas for solo violin, convey subtle harmony through inference rather than full
chordal structures; see below:
Example of implied harmonies in J.S. Bach's Cello Suite no. 1 in G, BWV 1007, bar 1.
[edit]Types
Carl Dahlhaus (1990) distinguishes between coordinate and subordinate harmony. Subordinate
harmony is the hierarchical tonality or tonal harmony well known today, while coordinate harmony is
the older Medieval and Renaissance tonalité ancienne, "the term is meant to signify that sonorities
are linked one after the other without giving rise to the impression of a goal-directed development. A
first chord forms a 'progression' with a second chord, and a second with a third. But the former chord
progression is independent of the later one and vice versa." Coordinate harmony follows direct
(adjacent) relationships rather than indirect as in subordinate. Interval cycles create symmetrical
harmonies, which have been extensively used by the composers Alban Berg, George Perle, Arnold
Schoenberg, Béla Bartók, and Edgard Varèse's Density 21.5.
Other types of harmony are based upon the intervals used in constructing the chords used in that
harmony. Most chords used in western music are based on "tertian" harmony, or chords built with the
interval of thirds. In the chord C Major7, C-E is a major third; E-G is a minor third; and G to B is a
major third. Other types of harmony consist of quartal harmony and quintal harmony.
[edit]Intervals
An interval is the relationship between two separate musical pitches. For example, in the melody
"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star", the first two notes (the first "twinkle") and the second two notes (the
second "twinkle") are at the interval of one fifth. What this means is that if the first two notes were the
pitch "C", the second two notes would be the pitch "G"—four scale notes, or seven chromatic notes
(a perfect fifth), above it.
The following are common intervals:
Root
Major ThirdMinor third
Fifth
C E E♭ G
D♭ F F♭ A♭
D F♯ F A
E♭ G G♭ B♭
E G♯ G B
F A A♭ C
F♯ A♯ A C♯
G B B♭ D
A♭ C C♭ E♭
A C♯ C E
B♭ D D♭ F
B D♯ D F♯
Therefore, the combination of notes with their specific intervals —a chord— creates harmony. For
example, in a C chord, there are three notes: C, E, and G. The note "C" is the root, with the notes "E"
and "G" providing harmony, and in a G7 (G dominant 7th) chord, the root G with each subsequent
note (in this case B, D and F) provide the harmony.
In the musical scale, there are twelve pitches. Each pitch is referred to as a "degree" of the scale.
The names A, B, C, D, E, F, and G are insignificant. The intervals, however, are not. Here is an
example:
1°2°
3° 4° 5°6°
7° 8°
C D E F G A B C
D E F♯ G A B C♯ D
As can be seen, no note always corresponds to a certain degree of the scale. The "root", or 1st-
degree note, can be any of the 12 notes of the scale. All the other notes fall into place. So, when C is
the root note, the fourth degree is F. But when D is the root note, the fourth degree is G. So while the
note names are intransigent, the intervals are not. In layman's terms: a "fourth" (four-step interval) is
always a fourth, no matter what the root note is. The great power of this fact is that any song can be
played or sung in any key—it will be the same song, as long as the intervals are kept the same, thus
transposing the harmony into the corresponding key.
When the intervals surpass the Octave (12 semitones), these intervals are named as "Extended
intervals", which include particularly the 9th, 11th, and 13th Intervals, widely used
in Jazz and Blues Music.
Extended Intervals are formed and named as following:
2nd Interval + Octave = "Ninth" Interval / 9th
4th Interval + Octave = "Eleventh" Interval / 11th
6th Interval + Octave = "Thirteenth" Interval / 13th
Apart from this categorization, intervals can also be divided into consonant and dissonant. As
explained in the following paragraphs,consonant intervals produce a sensation of relaxation
and dissonant intervals a sensation of tension.
The consonant intervals are considered to be the Unison, Octave, Fifth, Fourth and Major and
Minor Third. The Third is considered Imperfect while the former are considered Perfect. In classical
music the fourth may be considered to be dissonant when its function is contrapuntal.
All the other intervals, such as the 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th are considered Dissonant and require
resolution (of the produced tension) and usually preparation (depending on the music style used).
[edit]Chords and tension
Main article: Chord (music)
Main article: Consonance and dissonance
In the Western tradition, harmony is manipulated using chords, which are combinations of pitch
classes. In tertian or tertial harmony, so named after the interval of a third, the members of chords
are found and named by stacking intervals of major and minor thirds, starting with the "root", then the
"third" above the root, and the "fifth" above the root (which is a third above the third), etc. (Note that
chord members are named after their interval against the root, not by their numerical inclusion in the
building of the chord.) Traditionally, a chord must have at least three members to be called a chord,
although 2-member dyads are sometimes treated as chords, especially in rock (see power chords). A
chord with three members is called a triad because it has three members, not because it is
necessarily built in thirds (see Quartal and quintal harmony for chords built with other intervals).
Depending on the widths of the intervals being stacked, different qualities of chords are formed. In
popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms and characters
indicating their qualities. To keep the nomenclature as simple as possible, some defaults are
accepted (not tabulated here). For example, the chord members C, E, and G, form a C Major triad,
called by default simply a "C" chord. In an "A♭" chord (pronounced A-flat), the members are A♭, C,
and E♭.
In many types of music, notably baroque and jazz, chords are often augmented with "tensions". A
tension is an additional chord member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to one or
more of the other chord members. Following the tertian practice of building chords by stacking thirds,
the simplest first tension is added to a triad by stacking on top of the existing root, third, and fifth,
another third above the fifth, giving a new, potentially dissonant member the interval of a seventh
away from the root and therefore called the "seventh" of the chord, and producing a four-note chord,
called a "seventh chord". Depending on the widths of the individual thirds stacked to build the chord,
the interval between the root and the seventh of the chord may be major, minor, or diminished. (The
interval of an augmented seventh reproduces the root, and is therefore left out of the chordal
nomenclature.) The nomenclature allows that, by default, "C7" indicates a chord with a root, third,
fifth, and seventh spelled C, E, G, and B♭. Other types of seventh chords must be named more
explicitly, such as "C Major 7" (spelled C, E, G, B), "C augmented 7" (here the word augmented
applies to the fifth, not the seventh, spelled C, E, G#, Bb), etc. (For a more complete exposition of
nomenclature see Chord (music).)
Continuing to stack thirds on top of a seventh chord brings in the "extended tensions" or "upper
tensions" (those more than an octave above the root when stacked in thirds), the ninths, elevenths,
and thirteenths, and creates the chords named after them. (Note that except for dyads and triads,
tertian chord types are named for the widest interval in use in the stack, not for the number of chord
members, thus a ninth chord has five members, not nine.) Extensions beyond the thirteenth
reproduce existing chord members and are (usually) left out of the nomenclature. Complex
harmonies based on extended chords are found in abundance in jazz, modern orchestral works, film
music, etc.
Typically, in the classical Common practice period a dissonant chord (chord with tension) will
"resolve" to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a
balance between the consonant and dissonant sounds. In simple words, that occurs when there is a
balance between "tense" and "relaxed" moments. For this reason, usually tension is 'prepared' and
then 'resolved'.[17]
Preparing tension means to place a series of consonant chords that lead smoothly to the dissonant
chord. In this way the composer ensures introducing tension smoothly, without disturbing the listener.
Once the piece reaches its sub-climax, the listener needs a moment of relaxation to clear up the
tension, which is obtained by playing a consonant chord that resolves the tension of the previous
chords. The clearing of this tension usually sounds pleasant to the listener.[17]
[edit]Perception of harmony
Harmony is based on consonance, a concept whose definition has changed various times during the
history of Western music. In a psychological approach, consonance is a continuous variable.
Consonance can vary across a wide range. A chord may sound consonant for various reasons.
One is lack of perceptual roughness. Roughness happens when partials (frequency components) lie
within a critical bandwidth, which is a measure of the ear's ability to separate different frequencies.
Critical bandwidth lies between 2 and 3 semitones at high frequencies and becomes larger at lower
frequencies. The roughness of two simultaneous harmonic complex tones depends on the
amplitudes of the harmonics and the interval between the tones. The roughest interval in the
chromatic scale is the minor second and its inversion the major seventh. For typical spectral
envelopes in the central range, the second roughest interval is the major second and minor seventh,
followed by the tritone, the minor third (major sixth), the major third (minor sixth) and the perfect
fourth (fifth).
The second reason is perceptual fusion. A chord fuses in perception if its overall spectrum is similar
to a harmonic series. According to this definition a major triad fuses better than a minor triad and a
major-minor seventh chord fuses better than a major-major seventh or minor-minor seventh. These
differences may not be readily apparent in tempered contexts but can explain why major triads are
generally more prevalent than minor triads and major-minor sevenths generally more prevalent than
other sevenths (in spite of the dissonance of the tritone interval) in mainstream tonal music. Of
course these comparisons depend on style.
The third reason is familiarity. Chords that have often been heard in musical contexts tend to sound
more consonant. This principle explains the gradual historical increase in harmonic complexity of
Western music. For example, around 1600 unprepared seventh chords gradually became familiar
and were therefore gradually perceived as more consonant.
Western music is based on major and minor triads. The reason why these chords are so central is
that they are consonant in terms of both fusion and lack of roughness. they fuse because they
include the perfect fourth/fifth interval. They lack roughness because they lack major and minor
second intervals. No other combination of three tones in the chromatic scale satisfies these criteria.
[edit]Consonance and dissonance in balance
As Frank Zappa explained it,
"The creation and destruction of harmonic and 'statistical' tensions is essential to the maintenance of
compositional drama. Any composition (or improvisation) which remains consistent and 'regular'
throughout is, for me, equivalent to watching a movie with only 'good guys' in it, or eating cottage
cheese."q:Frank Zappa
In other words, a composer cannot ensure a listener's liking by using exclusively consonant sounds.
However, an excess of tension may disturb the listener. The balance between the two is essential.
Contemporary music has evolved in the way that tension is less often prepared and less structured
than in Baroque or Classical periods, thus producing new styles such as Jazz and Blues, where
tension is not usually prepared.
[edit]See also
Look
up harmony in Wiktionary,
the free dictionary.
Barbershop music
Consonance and dissonance
Chord (music)
Chord sequence
Chromatic chord
Chromatic mediant
Counterpoint
Harmonic series
Homophony (music)
List of musical terminology
Mathematics of musical scales
Musica universalis
Peter Westergaard's tonal theory
Prolongation
Physics of music
Tonality
Unified field
Voice leading
[edit]References
[edit]Footnotes
1. ̂ Malm, William P. (1996). Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia, p.15. ISBN 0-
13-182387-6. Third edition. "Homophonic texture...is more common in Western music, where
tunes are often built on chords (harmonies) that move in progressions. Indeed this harmonic
orientation is one of the major differences between Western and much non-Western music."
2. ̂ Dahlhaus, Car. "Harmony", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 24 February
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
3. ̂ Jamini, Deborah (2005). Harmony and Composition: Basics to Intermediate, p.147. ISBN 1-
4120-3333-0.
4. ̂ '1. Harmony' The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology in English Language
Reference accessed via Oxford Reference Online(24th February 2007)
5. ̂ Harmonia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus
6. ^ a b Dahlhaus, Carl. "Harmony", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 24 February
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
7. ^ a b c Arnold Whittall, "Harmony", The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham, (Oxford
University Press, 2002) (accessed via [Oxford Reference Online], 16 November 2007 is
gayubview=Main&entry=t114.e3144 )
8. ̂ Harmony, §3: Historical development. "Carl Dahlhaus", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy
(accessed 16 November 2007), grovemusic.com(subscription access).
9. ̂ see also Whitall 'Harmony: 4. Practice and Principle', Oxford Companion to Music
10. ̂ Regula Qureshi. "India, §I, 2(ii): Music and musicians: Art music", Grove Music Online, ed. L.
Macy (accessed 16 November 2007),grovemusic.com (subscription access). and Catherine
Schmidt Jones, 'Listening to Indian Classical Music', Connexions, (accessed 16 November
2007) [1]
11. ̂ Harold S. Powers/Richard Widdess. "India, §III, 2: Theory and practice of classical music:
Rāga", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 16 November
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
12. ̂ Harold S. Powers/Richard Widdess. "India, §III, 3(ii): Theory and practice of classical music:
Melodic elaboration", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 16 November
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
13. ̂ Rob C. Wegman. "Improvisation, §II: Western art music", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy
(accessed 16 November 2007), grovemusic.com(subscription access).
14. ̂ Robert D Levin. "Improvisation, §II, 4(i): The Classical period in Western art music: Instrumental
music", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 16 November
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
15. ̂ Bruno Nettl. "Improvisation, §I, 2: Concepts and practices: Improvisation in musical
cultures", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 16 November
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
16. ̂ see Whitall, 'Harmony'
17. ^ a b Schejtman, Rod (2008). The Piano Encyclopedia's "Music Fundamentals eBook", p.20-43
(accessed 10 March 2009).PianoEncyclopedia.com
[edit]Notations
Dahlhaus, Carl. Gjerdingen, Robert O. trans. (1990). Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality,
p. 141. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09135-8.
van der Merwe, Peter (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-
Century Popular Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-316121-4.
Nettles, Barrie & Graf, Richard (1997). The Chord Scale Theory and Jazz Harmon
MelodyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about melody in music. For other senses of this word, see Melody (disambiguation).
Look
up melody in Wiktionary, the
free dictionary.
A melody (from Greek μελῳδία - melōidía, "singing, chanting"[1]), also tune, voice, or line, is
alinear succession of musical tones which is perceived as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a
melody is a sequence of pitches and durations, while, more figuratively, the term has occasionally
been extended to include successions of other musical elements such as tone color.
Melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated
throughout a song or piece in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic
motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches (predominantly conjunct or disjunctor with
further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, and shape.
Contents
[hide]
1 Elements
2 Examples
3 See also
4 Further reading
5 References
6 External links
[edit]Elements
Given the many and varied elements and styles of melody "many extant explanations [of melody]
confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive."[2] Paul Narveson claimed in 1984
that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly.[3]
The melodies existing in most European music written before the 20th century, and popular music
throughout the 20th century, featured "fixed and easily discernible frequency patterns", recurring
"events, often periodic, at all structural levels" and "recurrence of durations and patterns of
durations".[2]
Melodies in the 20th century have "utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than has been the
custom in any other historical period of Western music." While the diatonic scale is still used,
the twelve-tone scale became "widely employed."[2] Composers also allotted a structural role to "the
qualitative dimensions" that previously had been "almost exclusively reserved for pitch and rhythm".
Kliewer states, "The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality (timbre),
texture, and loudness.[2] Though the same melody may be recognizable when played with a wide
variety of timbres and dynamics, the latter may still be an "element of linear ordering"[2]
[edit]Examples
"Pop Goes the Weasel" melody[2]
Different musical styles use melody in different ways. For example:
Jazz musicians use the melody line, called the "lead" or "head", as a starting point
for improvisation.
Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music and folk music tend to pick one or
two melodies (verse and chorus) and stick with them; much variety may occur in
the phrasing and lyrics.
Indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony as the
above forms.
Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a single melody
played simultaneously, called heterophony.
In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, and then
create variations. Classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as
those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short
melodic fragments, such as the opening of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Richard
Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif: a motif or melody associated with a certain idea,
person or place.
While in both most popular music and classical music of the common practice period pitch and
duration are of primary importance in melodies, the contemporary music of the 20th and 21st
centuries pitch and duration have lessened in importance and quality has gained importance,
often primary. Examples include musique concrete, klangfarbenmelodie, Elliott Carter's Eight
Etudes and a Fantasy which contains a movement with only one note, the third movement
of Ruth Crawford-Seeger's String Quartet 1931 (later reorchestrated asAndante for string
orchestra) in which the melody is created from an unchanging set of pitches through "dissonant
dynamics" alone, andGyörgy Ligeti's Aventures in which recurring phonetics create
the linear form.
Melody from Anton Webern's Variations for Orchestra, Op. 30 (pp. 23-24)[4]
[edit]See also
Unified field
Parsons code, a simple notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the
motion of the pitch up and down.
Appropriation (music)
Klangfarbenmelodie
Musique concrète
Melodic patterns
Sequence (music)
Line (poetry)
[edit]Further reading
Wikiquote has a collection of
quotations related to: Melody
Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed., p.517-19. [2]
Edwards, Arthur C. The Art of Melody, p.xix-xxx. Includes "a catalog of sample definitions." [2]
Holst, Imogen (1962/2008). Tune, Faber and Faber, London. ISBN 0-571-24198-0.
Smits van Waesberghe, J. (1955). A Textbook of Melody: A course in functional melodic
analysis, American Institute of Musicology. Includes "an attempt to formulate a theory of
melody." [2]
Szabolcsi, Bence (1965). A History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London.
[edit]References
1. ^ Melodia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus project
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kliewer, Vernon (1975). "Melody: Linear Aspects of Twentieth-Century
Music", Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, p.270-301. Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
3. ^ Narveson, Paul (1984). Theory of Melody. ISBN 0-8191-3834-7.
4. ^ Marquis, G. Welton (1964). Twentieth Century Music Idioms, p.2. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Motif (music)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A phrase originally presented as a motif may become a figure which accompanies another melody, as in the
second movement of Claude Debussy'sString Quartet (1893)
For other uses, see Motif (disambiguation) and Motive.
In music, a motif or motive (pronunciation) (help·info) is a shortmusical idea,
[1] a salient recurring figure, musical fragment or succession of notes that has some special
importance in or is characteristic of a composition. The Encyclopédie de la Pléiaderegards it as a
"melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic cell", whereas the 1958 Encyclopédie Fasquelle maintains that it
may contain one or more cells, though it remains the smallest analyzable element or phrase within
a subject.[2] It is commonly regarded as the shortest subdivision of a theme or phrase that still
maintains its identity as a musical idea. Grove and Larousse[3] also agree that the motif may have
harmonic, melodic and/or rhythmic aspects, Grove adding that it "is most often thought of in melodic
terms, and it is this aspect of the motif that is connoted by the term 'figure'."
A harmonic motif is a series of chords defined in the abstract, that is, without reference to melody or
rhythm. A melodic motif is a melodic formula, established without reference to intervals. A rhythmic
motif is the term designating a characteristic rhythmic formula, an abstraction drawn from the
rhythmic values of a melody."
A motif thematically associated with a person, place, or idea is called a leitmotif. Occasionally such a
motif is a musical cryptogram of the name involved. A head-motif (German: Kopfmotiv) is a musical
idea at the opening of a set of movements which serves to unite those movements.
To Scruton, however, a motif is distinguished from a figure in that a motif is foreground while a figure
is background: "A figure resembles a moulding in architecture: it is 'open at both ends', so as to be
endlessly repeatable. In hearing a phrase as a figure, rather than a motif, we are at the same time
placing it in the background, even if it is...strong and melodious."[4]
Any motif may be used to construct complete melodies, themes and pieces. Musical
development uses a distinct musical figure that is subsequently altered, repeated, or sequenced
throughout a piece or section of a piece of music, guaranteeing its unity. Such motivic
development has its roots in the keyboard sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti and the sonata
form of Haydn and Mozart's age. ArguablyBeethoven achieved the highest elaboration of this
technique; the famous "fate motif" —the pattern of three short notes followed by one long one— that
opens his Fifth Symphony and reappears throughout the work in surprising and refreshing
permutations is a classic example.
Motivic saturation is the "immersion of a musical motive in a composition," ie, keeping motifs and
themes below the surface or playing with their identity, and has been used by composers
including Miriam Gideon, as in "Night is my Sister" (1952) and "Fantasy on a Javanese Motif" (1958),
and Donald Erb. The use of motives is discussed in Adolph Weiss' "The Lyceum of Schönberg". [5]
[edit]See also
Motif (art)
Motif (literature)
Leitmotif
[edit]References
1. ^ New Grove (1980). cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a
Semiology of Music (Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691091366/ISBN 0691027145.
2. ^ Both cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of
Music (Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691091366/ISBN 0691027145.
3. ^ 1957 Encyclopédie Larousse cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse:
Toward a Semiology of Music (Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by
Carolyn Abbate. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691091366/ISBN
0691027145.
4. ^ Scruton, Roger (1997). The Aesthetics of Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-816638-
9.
5. ^ Hisama, Ellie M. (2001). Gendering Musical Modernism: The Music of Ruth Crawford, Marion
Bauer, and Miriam Gideon, p.146 and 152. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64030-X.
Recapitulation (music)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Sonata form. (Discuss)
In music theory, the recapitulation is one of the sections of a movement written in sonata form. The
recapitulation occurs after the movement's development section, and typically presents once more
the musical themes from the movement's exposition. This material is most often recapitulated in the
tonic key of the movement, in such a way that it reaffirms that key as the movement's home key.
In some sonata form movements, the recapitulation presents a straightforward image of the
movement's exposition. However, many sonata form movements, even early examples, depart from
this simple procedure. Devices used by composers include incorporating a secondary
development section, or varying the character of the original material, or rearranging its order, or
adding new material, or omitting material altogether, or overlaying material that was kept separate in
the exposition.
The composer of a sonata form movement may disguise the start of the recapitulation as an
extension of the development section. Conversely, the composer may write a "false recapitulation",
which gives the listener the idea that the recapitulation has begun, but proves on further listening to
be an extension of the development section.
[edit]References
Rosen, Charles (1988). Sonata Forms (2nd edition). W. W. Norton & Co. Ltd.. ISBN 978-
0393302196.
Rosen, Charles (2005). The Classical Style. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0571228126.
RhythmFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Rhythm (disambiguation).
Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός – rhythmos, "any regular recurring motion, symmetry"[1]) is a
"movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or
different conditions." [2] While rhythm most commonly applies to sound, such as music and spoken
language, it may also refer to visual presentation, as "timed movement through space."[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Rhythm in linguistics
2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
o 3.1 African music
o 3.2 Indian music
o 3.3 Western music
4 Types
5 See also
6 Sources
7 Further reading
[edit]Rhythm in linguistics
The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch in speech is called prosody; it is a topic in linguistics.
Narmour [4] describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are
additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short).
Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension,
while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton[5] points out this method
cannot account for syncopation and suggests the concept oftransformation.
A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses
on an underlying metric level, as opposed to a rhythmic gesture which does not [6].
[edit]Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
In his series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk
and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels
in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us – a fight or flight response. From a less
darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension,
time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual.[7]
Neurologist Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a
person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by stroke). In
addition, he states that chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm.[8]
[edit]Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as
they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation.
[edit]African music
In the Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. Babatunde
Olatunji (1927–2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal
sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be
played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly
by Djembe players.
It is noteworthy that the debate about the appropriateness of staff notation for African music is a
subject of particular interest to outsiders, not insiders. African scholars from Kyagambiddwa to Kongo
have for the most part accepted the conventions—and limitations—of staff notation and gone on to
produce transcriptions in order to inform and to make possible a higher level of discussion and
debate.— Agawu (2003: 52)[9]
[edit]Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm
patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of
Indian descent, made performances based on her singing these patterns. In Indian Classical music,
the Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured.
[edit]Western music
Standard music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and
percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do
this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In Rock
music, a drum beat is used to keep a bass/guitar line in time.
[edit]Types
In Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a time signature, partially signifying a
meter. The speed of the underlyingpulse is sometimes called the beat. The tempo is a measure of
how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm
means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with measurelength), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being
called duple meter and triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is simple
meter, if by three (or six) compound meter. According to Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four
are "simply not natural".[10]. His reference is to western European music.
Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg
Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by counting.
Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called polymeter. See
also polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research
among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston [11] , Fred
Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty[12], William Rothstein, and Joel
Lester.
Grid notation of single a clave pattern
Some genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Sub-Saharan African music
traditions and most Western music is based on subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more additive rhythm. African music makes heavy use of polyrhythms, specifically cross-
rhythm andIndian music uses complex cycles such as 7 and 13, whileBalinese music often uses
complex interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western classical music is fairly rhythmically
(or metrically) simple; it stays in a simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use
of syncopation.
Clave is a key pattern (or guide pattern) in African, Cuban music, and Brazilian music.
Claves
Four beats followed by three
Clave patterns
Problems listening to this file? See media help.
In the 20th century, composers like Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Philip Glass, andSteve Reich wrote
more rhythmically complex music using odd meters, and techniques such as phasing and additive
rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased
complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use
of irrational rhythms in New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of John
Cage's[where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than
individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would
otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings [13]. LaMonte Young also wrote music in
which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones
(drones). In the 1930s, Henry Cowellwrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms
and collaborated with Léon Thérémin to invent the Rhythmicon, the first electronic rhythm machine,
in order to perform them. Similarly, Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the player piano.
[edit]See also
Meter (music)
Prosody (linguistics)
Riddim
Morse Code
Soul (music)
Time scale (music)
Timing (linguistics)
Composite rhythm
[edit]Sources
1. ̂ ῥ υθμός , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus project
2. ̂ The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. II. Oxford University Press. 1971.
p. 2537.
3. ̂ "Art, Design, and Visual Thinking". Retrieved 2010-03-16.
4. ̂ Narmour (1980), p. 147–53. Cited in Winold, Allen (1975).
5. ̂ Middleton, Richard (1990). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University
Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
6. ̂ Winold, Allen (1975). "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music", Aspects of Twentieth-Century
Music. Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice–Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
7. ̂ Mithen, Steven (2005). The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and
Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson..ISBN 0297643177.
8. ̂ Patel, Aniruddh D. (2006), "Musical rhythm, linguistic rhythm, and human evolution not
you", Music Perception (Berkeley, California: University of California Press) I (24): 99–
104, ISSN 0730-7829, "there is not a single report of an animal being trained to tap, peck, or
move in synchrony with an auditory beat." as cited in Sacks, Oliver (2007). "Keeping Time:
Rhythm and Movement". Musicophilia, Tales of Music and the Brain. New York • Toronto: Alfred
a Knopf. pp. 239–240. ISBN 978-1-4000-4081-0. "No doubt many pet lovers will dispute this
notion, and indeed many animals, from the Lippizaner horses of the Spanish Riding School of
Vienna to performing circus animals appear to 'dance' to music. It is not clear whether they are
doing so or are responding to subtle visual or tactile cues from the humans around them."
9. ̂ Agawu, Kofi (2003: 52). Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions.
New York: Routledge.
10. ̂ In Discovering Music: Rhythm with Leonard Slatkin at 5:05
11. ̂ Yeston, Maury (1976). The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. Yale University
Press. ISBN 0300018843.
12. ̂ Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
510066-2.
13. ̂ Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", p. 257, The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1-
58046-143-3.
[edit]Further reading
McGaughey, William (2001). Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic
Civilization. Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.
Honing, H. (2002). "Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor
Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory]7(3): 227–232.
Humble, M. (2002). The Development of Rhythmic Organization in Indian Classical Music, MA
dissertation, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm—What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San
Francisco: RhythmSource Press. ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4.
London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. ISBN 0-19-
516081-9.
Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection -
Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009.
Toussaint, G. T., “The geometry of musical rhythm,” In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan,
editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol.
3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198–212.
Theme (music)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In music, a theme is the material, usually a recognizable melody, upon which part or all of a
composition is based. It may be perceivable as a complete musical expression in itself, separate
from the work in which it is found (Drabkin 2001). In contrast to an "idea" or "motif", a theme is
usually a complete phrase or period (Dunsby 2002). The Encyclopédie Fasquelle (Michel 1958–61)
defines a theme as "Any element, motif, or small musical piece that has given rise to some variation
becomes thereby a theme."
Contents
[hide]
1 Explanation
2 Fugue
3 Music without themes
4 See also
5 References
[edit]Explanation
In classical composition, a principal theme is announced and then a second melody, sometimes
called a countertheme or secondary theme, may occur.
A leitmotif is a motif or theme associated with a person, place, or idea. See also figure and cell.
Thematic changes and processes are often structurally important, and theorists such as Rudolph
Reti have created analysis from a purely thematic perspective ([citation needed]). Fred Lerdahl describes
thematic relations "associational" and thus outside his cognitive-based generative theory's scope of
analysis.[cite this quote]
Music based on one theme is monothematic while music based on several themes is polythematic.
For example, most fugues are monothematic and most pieces in sonata form are polythematic
(Randel 2002, 429). When one of the sections in the exposition of a sonata form movement consists
of several themes or other material, defined by function and (usually) their tonality, rather than by
melodic characteristics alone, the term theme group (or subject group) is sometimes used
(Rushton 2001).
[edit]Fugue
In a three-part fugue, the principal theme (usually called the "subject") is announced three times in
three different voices — soprano, alto,bass — or some variation of this.
In a four-part fugue, the principal theme is announced four times. A motif is a short melodic figure
used repeatedly which may be used to construct a theme.
[edit]Music without themes
Music without themes, or without recognizable, repeating, and developing themes, is
called athematic. Examples include the pre-twelve tone or early atonal works of Arnold
Schoenberg, Anton Webern, and Alban Berg. Schoenberg once said that, "intoxicated by the
enthusiasm of having freed music from the shackles of tonality, I had thought to find further liberty of
expression. In fact...I believed that now music could renounce motivic features and remain coherent
and comprehensible nevertheless" (Schoenberg 1975,[page needed]).
[edit]See also
Ritornello
Rondo
Theme music
[edit]References
Drabkin, William (2001). "Theme". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by
Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.
Dunsby, Jonathan (2002). "Theme". The Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison Latham.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198662122
Lerdahl, Fred (1992)."Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems". Contemporary Music
Review 6, no. 2:97-121.
Michel, François (ed). (1958–61). Encyclopédie de la musique, 3 vols. Paris: Fasquelle. (Cited in
Nattiez 1990.)
Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (Musicologie
générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990). ISBN 0-691-02714-5.
Randel, Don Michael (ed.) (1999). The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press. ISBN 0-674-00978-9.
Rushton, Julia 2001. "Subject Group". New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by
Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.
Schoenberg, Arnold (1975). "My Evolution", in Style and Idea: Selected Writings of Arnold
Schoenberg,, edited by Leonard Stein, translated by Leo Black, 88. London: Faber. ISBN
0571097227
TonalityFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the musical system. For linguistic feature, see Tone (linguistics).
Tonality is a system of music in which specific hierarchical pitch relationships are based on
a key "center", or tonic. The term tonalitéoriginated with Alexandre-Étienne Choron (1810) and was
borrowed by François-Joseph Fétis in 1840 (Reti, 1958; Simms 1975, 119; Judd, 1998; Dahlhaus
1990). Although Fétis used it as a general term for a system of musical organization and spoke
of types de tonalités rather than a single system, today the term is most often used to refer to Major-
Minor tonality (also called diatonic tonality, common practice tonality, or functional tonality), the
system of musical organization of the common practice period, and of Western-influenced popular
music throughout much of the world today.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics and features
o 1.1 Roman numerals
o 1.2 Chords
o 1.3 Inversion
o 1.4 Form
o 1.5 Harmony
o 1.6 Consonance and dissonance
2 History and theory
o 2.1 18th century
o 2.2 19th century
o 2.3 20th century
3 Theoretical underpinnings
4 See also
5 References
6 Sources
7 Further reading
8 External links
[edit]Characteristics and features
Main article: Diatonic scale
Carl Dahlhaus (1990,[page needed]) lists the characteristics schemata of tonal harmony, "typified in the
compositional formulae of the 16th and early 17th centuries," as the "complete cadence"
(vollständige Kadenz): I-IV-V-I; I-IV-I-V-I; or I-ii-V-I; the circle of fifths progression: I-IV-vii°-iii-vi-ii-V-I;
and the "major-minor parallelism": minor: v-i-VII-III equals major: iii-vi-V-I; or minor: III-VII-i-v equals
major: I-V-vi-iii.
David Cope (1997,[page needed]) considers key, consonance and dissonance (or relaxation and tension,
respectively), and hierarchicalrelationships to be the three most basic concepts in tonality. In
describing these tenets of tonal music, several known terms are used to refer to various elements of
the tonal system.
C major scale:
A natural minor scale:
Other scales or modes are often introduced for variety within the context of a major-minor tonal
system without disturbing the diatonic nature of the work. The major scale predominates, and the
melodic minor contains nine pitches (seven with two alterable). The seven basic notes of a scale are
notated in the key signature, and whether the piece is in the major or minor key is either stated in the
title or implied in the piece (there is a major and minor key for each key signature). While other
scales and modes are used in tonal music, these two scales are the reference point for most tonal
music and its vocabulary.[citation needed]
Other important scales include the blues scale, the whole tone scale, the pentatonic scale, and
the chromatic scale. As these are not the major or minor diatonic scales, music written exclusively
with them is not tonal by the definition above.
Tone-centric music composed in other scale systems may be microtonal, and while microtonal music
theory may draw from tonal theory, it is treated separately in textbooks and other works on music.
[citation needed] However, within the tonal system, notes between the chromatic system are used in various
contexts, including quarter tones and various effects such as portamento or glissando, where the
instrumentalist moves between established notes of the diatonic scale. These are used for "colour"
rather than harmonic function, and do not disturb the fundamental (diatonic) scale being used.[citation
needed]
Chords are built primarily from notes of a diatonic scale, or secondarily from chromatic notes treated
as variations or embellishments of the basic scale. The identity of the scale is important, as the size
of the steps between notes are used to determine the system of chord relationships. At any given
time one scale degree is heard as the most important (the "tonic"), and the chord built on it, which is
always a major or minor triad, is heard as the most forceful closure.[citation needed]
[edit]Roman numerals
Main article: Scale degree
In notation or analysis, each note or degree of the scale is often designated by a Roman numeral, or,
less commonly, solfege:
Function Roman Numeral Solfege
Tonic I Do/Ut
Supertonic II Re
Mediant III Mi
Sub-Dominant IV Fa
Dominant V Sol
Sub-Mediant VI La
Leading/Subtonic VII Ti/Si
Roman numerals are most commonly used to describe triads in relation to the tonic, and are often
written using a combination of upper and lower case numerals. The quality of triad
(major, minor, diminished, or augmented) determines the case of the numeral; major and augmented
triads require an upper case numeral, and minor and diminished triads require a lower case numeral.
The triad built upon the first scale degree (or tonic note) corresponds to the Roman numeral I (or i),
the triad built on the second scale degree corresponds to the roman numeral II (or ii), and so on.
Using Roman numerals to describe chords found in a piece of music highlights how the piece relates
to the fundamental harmonic paradigms (I-IV-V-I, I-ii-V-I, etc.).
[edit]Chords
Main article: Chord (music)
These numerals also indicate chords which are built upon the indicated degree. This degree is then
known as the root of that chord. Thus Idescribes the tonic chord, the chord built on the tonic note, at
a given time. These chords are generally all triads (having three notes, built from thirds, and having a
diatonic function).
The degrees of a scale refer both to given pitches (frequencies) and to those pitches' diatonic
functions (roles), which is why chords are named by scale degree. The notes of a chord need not all
be sounded simultaneously, and one to two notes may function as, or imply, a three (or more) note
chord. Thus, a chord described as V is based on the fifth note of the prevailing tonic scale (V-VII-II).
In C Major, that would be a triad based on G, and would be the G Major triad (G-B-D). To describe
a chord progression, the Roman numerals of the chords are listed. Thus IV-V-I describes a chord
progression of a chord based on the fourth note of a scale, then one based on the fifth note of the
scale, and then one on the first note of the scale.
Chords are then further named according to their quality or makeup, determined by the scale notes
which lie a third and fifth (two thirds) above the degree a chord is built upon. Capital Roman
numerals refer to the major chord, and lower-case Roman numerals refer to the minor chord. Quality
is generally not as important as the chord's root.[citation needed]
This means that in the traditional major scale, the ii, iii and vi are minor chords, whereas I, IV, V are
major. The chord on the seventh note is a diminished triad chord and is written vii°. Numbers
attached to a chord indicate additional notes, and one of the most important chords in tonal harmony
is the V7 chord, which is a four note chord that includes the fourth note of the tonic scale.
The 7 refers to the minor seventh note from the fundamental note of the chord, not the seventh note
of the (original) tonic scale of the composition.
[edit]Inversion
Main article: Inversion (music)
A chord's root is determined by which note establishes the chord's relationship to the tonic, and not
by which is in the bass, or the lowest played note. Chords are inverted when this root note is not the
lowest. For example in C Major C-E-G is the tonic chord. If C is not the lowest note played, it is said
to be in inversion. The first inversion would be E-G-C, and the second inversion would be G-C-E.
Since inverted chords are also chords in their own right, in context a chord is sometimes thought to
be inverted only when voice leading implies it.[citation needed]
[edit]Form
Main article: Musical form
The traditional form of tonal music begins and ends on the tonic of the piece, and many tonal works
move to a closely related key, such as the dominant of the main tonality (for example sonata form).
Establishing a tonality is traditionally accomplished through a cadence, which is two chords in
succession which give a feeling of completion or rest, with the most common being V7-I cadence.
Other cadences are considered to be less powerful. The cadences determine the form of a tonal
piece of music, and the placement of cadences, their preparation, and their establishment
as cadences, as opposed to simply chord progressions, is central to the theory and practice of tonal
music.[citation needed]
[edit]Harmony
Main article: Harmony
Chord progressions assign particular roles, or functions, to the individual harmonies. The totality of
paradigmatic harmonic relationships in classical tonal music is called functional harmony.
[edit]Consonance and dissonance
Main article: Consonance and dissonance
In the context of tonal organization, a chord or a note is said to be consonant when it implies stability,
and dissonant when it implies instability. This is not the same as the ordinary use of the words
consonant and dissonant. A dissonant chord is in tension against the tonic, and implies that the
music is distant from that tonic chord. Resolution is the process by which the harmonic progression
moves from dissonant chords to consonant chords and follows counterpoint or voice leading. Voice
leading is a description of the horizontal movement of the music, as opposed to chords which are
considered the vertical.
Traditional tonal music is described in terms of a scale of notes, upon which are built chords. Chords
in order form progressions, which establish or deny a particular chord as being the tonic chord. The
cadence is held to be the sequence of chords which establishes one chord as being the tonic chord;
more powerful cadences create a greater sense of closure and a stronger sense of key. Chords
function by leading the music towards or away from a particular tonic chord. When the sense of
chord is the tonic chord is changed, the music is said to have "changed key" or "modulated". Roman
numerals and numbers are used to describe the relationship of a particular chord to the tonic chord.
The techniques of accomplishing this process, are the subject of tonal music theory and
compositional practice.
[edit]History and theory
This section needs attention from an expert on the subject. See the talk page for details.WikiProject Music or the Music Portal may be able to help recruit an expert. (May 2010)
[edit]18th century
Theories of tonal music are generally said to have begun with Jean-Philippe Rameau's Treatise on
Harmony (1722), in which he describes music written through chord progressions, cadences, and
structure. He claimed that his work represents "the practice of the last 40 years". Rameau's work was
introduced to Germany by Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg in 1757, and used Rameau's system to explain
the music of Johann Sebastian Bach (Marpurg 1753–54). The vocabulary of describing notes in
relationship to the tonic note, and the use of harmonic progressions and cadences, became part of
Bach's practice. Essential to this version of tonal theory are the chorale harmonizations of Bach, and
the method by which a church melody is given a four part harmony by first assigning cadences, then
creating a natural, or most direct,thoroughbass, and finally filling in the middle voices.
[edit]19th century
Fétis (1844[citation needed]) defined tonality, specifically tonalité moderne as the, "set of relationships,
simultaneous or successive, among the tones of the scale," allowing for other types de
tonalités among different cultures.[cite this quote] He considered tonalité moderne as "trans-tonic order"
(having one established key, and allowing for modulation to other keys) and tonalité ancienne "uni-
tonic order" (establishing one key and remaining in that key for the duration of the piece). He
described his earliest example of tonalité moderne thus: "In the passage quoted here from
Monteverdi's madrigal (Cruda amarilli, mm.9-19 and 24-30), one sees a tonality determined by
the accord parfait [root position major chord] on the tonic, by the sixth chord assigned to the chords
on the third and seventh degrees of the scale, by the optional choice of the accord parfait or the sixth
chord on the sixth degree, and finally, by the accord parfait and, above all, by the unprepared
seventh chord (with major third) on the dominant" (p. 171).
Fétis believed that tonality, tonalité moderne, was entirely cultural, saying, "For the elements of
music, nature provides nothing but a multitude of tones differing in pitch, duration, and intensity by
the greater or least degree... The conception of the relationships that exist among them is awakened
in the intellect, and, by the action of sensitivity on the one hand, and will on the other, the mind
coordinates the tones into different series, each of which corresponds to a particular class of
emotions, sentiments, and ideas. Hence these series become various types of tonalities" (pp. 11–
12). "But one will say, 'What is the principle behind these scales, and what, if not acoustic
phenomena and the laws of mathematics, has set the order of their tones?' I respond that this
principle is purely metaphysical [anthropological]. We conceive this order and the melodic and
harmonic phenomena that spring from it out of our conformation and education" (p. 249). In contrast,
Hugo Riemann believed tonality, "affinities between tones" or Tonverwandtschaften, was entirely
natural and, following Moritz Hauptmann(1853), that the major third and perfect fifth were the only
"directly intelligible" intervals, and that I, IV, and V, the tonic, subdominant, and dominant were
related by the perfect fifths between their root notes (Dahlhaus 1990, 101-2).
By the 1840s, the practice of harmony had expanded to include more chromatic notes and a wider
chord vocabulary, particularly the more frequent use of the diminished seventh chord—a four-note
chord of all minor thirds. It is in this era that the word tonality became more common. At the same
time, the elaboration of both the fugue and the sonata form, in terms of key relationships, became
more rigorous, and the study of harmonic progressions, voice leading, and ambiguity of key, more
precise.
Theorists such as Hugo Riemann, and later Edward Lowinsky and others, pushed back the date at
which modern tonality began, and thecadence began to be seen as the definitive way that a tonality
is established in a work of music (Judd, 1998).
[edit]20th century
This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(May 2010)
In response, Bernhard Meier instead used a tonality and modality, or modern and ancient,
dichotomy, with Renaissance music being modal. The term modality has been criticized by Harold
Powers, among others. However, it is used to describe music whose harmonic function centers on
notes rather than on chords, including some of the music of Bartók, Stravinsky, Vaughan
Williams, Charles Ives, and composers of minimalist music. This and other modal music is broadly
tonal.
In the early 20th century, the vocabulary of tonal theory was decisively influenced by two theorists:
composer Arnold Schoenberg, whoseHarmonielehre (Theory of Harmony) describes in detail chords,
chord progressions, vagrant chords, creation of tonal areas, and voice leading in terms of harmony.
To Schoenberg, every note has "structural function" to assert or deny a tonality, based on its
tendency to establish or undermine a single tonic triad as central. At the same time, Heinrich
Schenker was evolving a theory based on the expansion of horizontal relationships. To Schenker,
the background of every successful tonal piece is based on a simple cadence, which is then
elaborated and elongated in the middle and foreground. Though adherents of the two theorists
argued back and forth, in the mid-century a synthesis of their ideas was widely taught as tonal
theory, most particularly, Schenker's use of graphical analysis, and Schoenberg's emphasis on tonal
distance.
The practice of jazz developed its own theory of tonality, stating that while the cadence is not central
to establishing a tonality, the presence of the I and V chords and either the IV or ii chord in
progression is. This theory emphasized the play of modal elements against tonal elements in an
effort to allow improvisation and inflection of standard melodies.
While the works of Schoenberg post 1911 created an atonal revolution, one influential school of
thought, to which Schoenberg himself belonged, argued that chromatic composition led to a "new
tonality".[citation needed] The central idea of this theory is that music is always perceived as having a
center, and even in a fully chromatic work, composers establish and disintegrate centers in a manner
analogous to traditional harmony.[citation needed]
Tonality may be considered generally, with no restrictions on the date or place the music was
produced, and little restriction on the materials and methods used. This definition includes pre-17th
century western music, as well as much non-western music. By the middle of the twentieth century, it
had become "evident that triadic structure does not necessarily generate a tone center, that non-
triadic harmonic formations may be made to function as referential elements, and that the
assumption of a twelve-tone complex does not preclude the existence of tone centers" (Perle 1991,
8). Centric is sometimes used to describe music which is not traditionally tonal, but which
nevertheless has a relatively strong tonal center. Often the term common practice tonality is used
specifically to refer to tonal music that utilizes the diatonic system of relationship between tonic and
dominant, whereas tonal or tonality refers more broadly to describe any music or musical practice
that relies on or exhibits tonal centers, modalities, or both, often with triadic organization and
relatively consonant harmonies.
In the early 20th century, the tonality which had prevailed since the 1600s was seen to have reached
a crisis or break down point. Because of the "increased use of ambiguous chords, the less probable
harmonic progressions, and the more unusual melodic and rhythmic inflections",[citation needed] the syntax
of functional harmony was loosened to the point where "At best, the felt probabilities of the style
system had become obscure; at worst, they were approaching a uniformity which provided few
guides for either composition or listening" (Meyer 1967, 241). This led to a series of responses,
many[weasel words] of which were considered irreconcilable with tonal theory or tonality at all. At the same
time, other composers and theorists[who?] maintained that tonality had been stretched but not broken.
This led to more technical vocabularies to describe tonality, including pitch classes, pitch sets,
graphical analysis, and describing works in terms, not of their notes, but of their dominant intervals.
Alfred Einstein wrote that in ancient China, "the development from the non-semitonal pentatonic to
the seven-note scale is certainly traceable, even though the old pentatonic always remained the
foundation of its music" (Einstein 1954, 7). He notes a similar development in ancient Japan and
Java. Much folk and art music focuses on a pentatonic, or five-note scale, including Beijing Opera,
the folk music of Hungary, and the musical traditions of Japan.
Pre-classical concert music was largely modal.[citation needed] The postmodern age of composition which
began in the mid-1970s with the advent of minimalism has been characterized by a dramatic return
to the use of tonality by composers, especially in the U.S.[citation needed]Other composers such as Alan
Hovhaness, Samuel Barber, Benjamin Britten, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, and Lou Harrison, never
abandoned tonality in the general sense, even at the height of atonal modernist influence in the
middle decades of the 20th century.[citation needed]
[edit]Theoretical underpinnings
Tonality allows for a great range of musical materials, structures, meanings, and understandings. It
does this through establishing a tonic, or central chord, based on the lowest pitch, or degree, of a
scale, and using a somewhat flexible network of relations between any pitch or chord and the tonic,
similar to perspective in painting. Tonality has a hierarchical structure: one triad, the tonic triad, is the
center to which other chords are supposed to lead. Changing which chord is felt to be the tonic triad
is referred to as modulation.
Circle of fifths
As within a musical phrase, interest and tension may be created through the move from consonance
to dissonance and back. A larger piece will also create interest by moving away from and back to the
tonic, and tension by destabilizing and re-establishing the key. Distantly related pitches and chords
may be considered dissonant in and of themselves, since their resolution to the tonic is implied.
Temporary secondary tonal centers may be established by cadences, or simply passed through in a
process called modulation, while simultaneous tonal centers may be established through polytonality.
Additionally, the structure of these features and processes may be linear, cyclical, or both. This
allows for a huge variety of relations to be expressed throughconsonance and dissonance, distance
or proximity to the tonic, the establishment of temporary or secondary tonal centers,
and ambiguity as to tonal center. Music notation was created to accommodate tonality and facilitate
interpretation.
The majority of tonal music assumes that notes spaced over several octaves are perceived the same
way as if they were played in one octave, or octave equivalency. Tonal music also assumes that
scales have harmonic implication or diatonic functionality. This means a note which has different
places in a chord will be heard differently, thus there is not enharmonic equivalency. In tonal music,
chords which are moved to different keys, or played with different root notes, are not perceived as
being the same; transpositional equivalency and especially inversional equivalency are not
considered applicable.
A successful tonal piece of music, or a successful performance of one, will give the listener a feeling
that a particular chord — the tonic chord — is the most stable and final. It will then use musical
materials to tell the musician and the listener how far the music is from that tonal center, most
commonly, though not always, to heighten the sense of movement and drama as to how the music
will resolve the tonic chord. The means for doing this are described by the rules of harmony (or
throughbass) and counterpoint. Counterpoint is the study of linear resolutions of music, while
harmony encompasses the sequences of chords which form a chord progression.
Though modulation may occur instantaneously without indication or preparation, the least ambiguous
way to establish a new tonal center is through a cadence, a succession of two or more chords which
ends a section, gives a feeling of closure or finality, or both. Traditionally, cadences act both
harmonically, to establish tonal centers, and formally, to articulate the end of sections; just as the
tonic triad is harmonically central, a dominant-tonic cadence will be structurally central. The more
powerful the cadence, the larger the section of music it can close. The strongest cadence is the
perfect authentic cadence, which moves from the dominant to the tonic, most strongly establishes
tonal center, and ends the most important sections of tonal pieces, including the final section. This is
the basis of the dominant-tonic ortonic-dominant relationship. Common practice placed a great deal
of emphasis on the correct use of cadences to structure music, and cadences were placed precisely
to define the sections of a work. However, such strict use of cadences gradually gave way to more
complex procedures where whole families of chords were used to imply particular distance from the
tonal center. Composers, beginning in the late 18th century, began using chords such as the
Neapolitan, French or Italian Sixth. These temporarily suspended a sense of key, and by freely
changing between the major and minor voicing for the tonic chord, they made the listener unsure of
whether the music was major or minor. There was also a gradual increase in the use of notes which
were not part of the basic 7 notes, called chromaticism, culminating in post-Wagnerian music such as
that by Mahler and Strauss, and trends such as impressionism and dodecaphony.
One area of disagreement going back to the origin of the term tonality is whether tonality is natural or
inherent in acoustical phenomena, whether it is inherent in the human nervous system or a
psychological construct, whether it is inborn or learned, and to what degree it is all these things
(Meyer 1967, 236). A viewpoint held by many theorists since the third quarter of the 19th century,
following the publication in 1862 of the first edition of Helmholtz's On the Sensation of
Tone (Helmholtz 1877), holds that diatonic scales and tonality arise from natural overtones (Riemann
1872, 1875, 1882, 1893, 1905, 1914–15; Schenker 1906–35; Hindemith 1937–70).
Rudolph Réti differentiates between harmonic tonality of the traditional kind found in homophony, and
melodic tonality, as in monophony. In the harmonic kind, tonality is produced through the V-I chord
progression. He argues that in the progression I-x-V-I (and all progressions), V-I is the only step
"which as such produces the effect of tonality," and that all other chord successions, diatonic or not,
being more or less similar to the tonic-dominant, are "the composer's free invention." He describes
melodic tonality (the term coined independently and 10 years earlier by Estonian composer Jaan
Soonvald (Rais 1992, 46)) as being "entirely different from the classical type," wherein, "the whole
line is to be understood as a musical unit mainly through its relationship to this basic note [the tonic],"
this note not always being the tonic as interpreted according to harmonic tonality. His examples are
ancient Jewish and Gregorian chant and other Eastern music, and he points out how these melodies
often may be interrupted at any point and returned to the tonic, yet harmonically tonal melodies, such
as that from Mozart's The Magic Flute below, are actually "strict harmonic-rhythmic pattern[s]," and
include many points "from which it is impossible, that is, illogical, unless we want to destroy the
innermost sense of the whole line" to return to the tonic (Reti 1958).[page needed]
Play normally (help·info) and compare with impossible return (help·info) after B♮
x = return to tonic near inevitable
circled x = possible but not inevitable
circle = impossible
(Reti 1958, [page needed])
Consequently, he argues, melodically tonal melodies resist harmonization and only reemerge
in western music after, "harmonic tonality was abandoned," as in the music of Claude Debussy:
"melodic tonality plus modulation is [Debussy's] modern tonality" (Reti 1958, 23).
[edit]See also
Music portal
Atonality
History of music
Schenkerian analysis
Peter Westergaard's tonal theory
[edit]References
Beswick, Delbert Meacham. 1951. "The Problem of Tonality in Seventeenth-Century Music."
Ph.D. diss. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina.
Jim Samson (1977) suggests the following discussions of tonality as defined by Fétis,
Helmholtz, Riemann, D'Indy, Adler, Yasser, and others:
Beswick, Delbert M. 1950. "The Problem of Tonality in Seventeenth Century Music".
Ph.D. thesis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina. p. 1-29. OCLC accession
number 12778863.
Shirlaw, Matthew (1917). The Theory of Harmony: An Inquiry into the Natural
Principles of Harmony; with an Examination of the Chief Systems of Harmony from
Rameau to the Present Day. London: Novello & Co. (Reprinted New York: Da Capo
Press, 1969. ISBN 0-306-71658-5.)
[edit]Sources
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principes de m. Rameau. Paris: David l'aîné. Facsimile reprint, New York: Broude Bros.,
1966.
Choron, Alexandre. 1810. "Sommaire de l'histoire de la musique." In vol. 1 of François
Fayolle and Alexandre Choron, Dictionnaire historique de musiciens. 2 vols. Paris: Valade
et Lenormant, 1810–11.
Cope, David. 1997. Techniques of the Contemporary Composer. New York: Schirmer
Books. ISBN 0-02-864737-8.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1990. Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality. Translated by Robert O.
Gjerdingen. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09135-8.
Castile-Blaze. 1821. Dictionnaire de musique moderne. Paris: Au magazin de musique
de la Lyre moderne.
Fétis, François-Joseph. 1844. Traité complet de la théorie et de la pratique de
l'harmonie contenant la doctrine de la science et de l'art. Brussels: Conservatoire de
Musique; Paris: Maurice Schlesinger.
Hauptmann, Moritz. 1853. Die Natur der Harmonik und der Metrik. Leipzig: Breitkopf
und Härtel.
Rameau, Jean-Philippe. 1737. Génération harmonique, ou Traité de musique
théorique et pratique. Paris: Prault fils.
Riemann, Hugo; cited in Gurlitt, W. (1950). "Hugo Riemann (1849-1919)".
Einstein, Alfred. 1954. A Short History of Music, fourth American edition, revised. New York:
Vintage Books.
Gustin, Molly. 1969. Tonality. Philosophical Library. LCCN 68-18735.
Harrison, Lou. 1992. "Entune." Contemporary Music Review 6 (2), 9-10.
Helmholtz, Hermann von. 1877. Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen als physiologische
Grundlage für die Theorie der Musik. Fourth edition. Braunschweig: F. Vieweg. English,
as On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music. 2d English
ed. translated, thoroughly rev. and corrected, rendered conformal to the 4th (and last)
German ed. of 1877, with numerous additional notes and a new additional appendix
bringing down information to 1885, and especially adapted to the use of music students, by
Alexander J. Ellis. With a new introd. (1954) by Henry Margenau. New York, Dover
Publications, 1954.
Hindemith, Paul. Unterweisung im Tonsatz. 3 vols. Mainz, B. Schott's Söhne, 1937–70. First
two volumes in English, as The Craft of Musical Composition, translated by Arthur Mendel
and Otto Ortmann. New York: Associated Music Publishers; London: Schott & Co., 1941-
42.
Janata P, J. Birk, J. Van Horn J, M. Leman, B. Tillmann, and J. Bharucha. 2002. "The
cortical topography of tonal structures underlying Western music." Science (Dec. 13).
Judd, Cristle Collins. 1998. "Introduction: Analyzing Early Music", Tonal Structures of Early
Music (ed. Judd). New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-2388-3.
Kepler, Johannes. 1619. Harmonices mundi (Latin: The Harmony of the Worlds). Linz:
Godofredo Tampechi.
Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn, Richard L. Crocker, and Robert R. Brown. 1976. Sounds from
Silence, Recent Discoveries in Ancient Near Eastern Music. LP sound recording, 33 1/3
rpm, 12 inch, with bibliography (23 p. ill.) laid in container. [n.p.]: Bit Enki Records.
LCC#75-750773 /R
Marpurg, Friedrich Wilhelm. 1753–54. Abhandlung von der Fuge nach dem Grundsätzen der
besten deutschen und ausländischen Meister. 2 vols. Berlin: A. Haude, und J.C. Spener.
Marpurg, Friedrich Wilhelm. 1757. Systematische Einleitung in die musikalische Setzkunst,
nach den Lehrsätzen des Herrn Rameau, Leipzig: J. G. I. Breitkopf. [translation of
D'Alembert 1752]
Meyer, Leonard B. 1967. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-
Century Culture. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
Perle, George. 1978. Twelve-Tone Tonality. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-
20142-6. (reprinted 1992)
Perle, George. 1991. Serial Composition and Atonality: An Introduction to the Music of
Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern, sixth edition, revised. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07430-0
Pleasants, Henry. 1955 The Agony of Modern Music, Simon & Shuster, N.Y., LCC#54-
12361.
Rais, Mark. 1992. "Jaan Soonvald and His Musical System". Leonardo Music Journal 2, no.
1:45–47.
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Ballard.
Rameau, Jean-Phillipe. 1726. Nouveau Systême de Musique Theorique, où l'on découvre le
Principe de toutes les Regles necessaires à la Pratique, Pour servir d'Introduction au Traité
de l'Harmonie. Paris: L'Imprimerie de Jean-Baptiste-Christophe Ballard.
Rameau, Jean-Phillipe. 1737. Génération harmonique, ou Traité de musique théorique et
pratique. Paris: Prault fils.
Rameau, Jean-Phillipe. 1750. Démonstration du Principe de L'Harmonie, Servant de base à
tout l'Art Musical théorique et pratique. Paris: Durand et Pissot.
Reti, Rudolph (1958). Tonality, Atonality, Pantonality: A Study of Some Trends in Twentieth
Century Music. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-20478-0.
Riemann, Hugo. 1872. "Über Tonalität." Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 68.
Riemann, Hugo. 1875. “Die objective Existenz der Untertöne in der Schallwelle.” Allgemeine
Musikzeitung 2:205–6, 213–15.
Riemann, Hugo. 1882. Die Natur der Harmonik. Sammlung musikalischer Vorträge 40, ed.
Paul Graf Waldersee. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel.
Riemann, Hugo. 1893. Vereinfachte Harmonielehre oder die Lehre von den tonalen
Funktionen der Akkorde. London & New York: Augener & Co. (2d ed. 1903.) Translated
1895 as Harmony Simplified, or the Theory of the Tonal Functions of Chords. London:
Augener & Co.
Riemann, Hugo. 1905. "Das Problem des harmonischen Dualismus." Neue Zeitschrift für
Musik 101:3–5, 23–26, 43–46, 67–70.
Riemann, Hugo. 1914–15. "Ideen zu einer 'Lehre von den Tonvorstellungen'." Jahrbuch der
Musikbibliothek Peters 1914–15: 1–26.
Samson, Jim. 1977. Music in Transition: A Study of Tonal Expansion and Atonality, 1900-
1920. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.ISBN 0-393-02193-9.
Schellenberg, E. Glenn, and Sandra E. Trehub. 1996. "Natural Musical Intervals: Evidence
from Infant Listeners" Psychological ScienceVol. 7, no. 5 (September): 272-77.
Schenker, Heinrich. 1906–35. Neue musikalische Theorien und Phantasien. 3 vols. in 4.
Vienna and Leipzig: Universal Edition.
Schenker, Heinrich. 1979. Free composition, translated and edited by Ernst Oster. New
York: Longman, 1979. Translation of Neue musikalische Theorien und Phantasien, 3.
Bd., Der freie Satz. ISBN 0-582-28073-7
Schenker, Heinrich. 1987. Counterpoint, translated by John Rothgeb and Jürgen Thym;
edited by John Rothgeb. 2 vols. New York: Schirmer Books; London: Collier Macmillan.
Translation of Neue musikalische Theorien und Phantasien, 2. Bd., Kontrapunkt. ISBN 0-
02-873220-0
Schenker, Heinrich ; ed. and annot. Oswald Jonas (1954). Harmony. trans. Elisabeth Mann-
Borgese. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. OCLC 280916. Translation of Neue
musikalische Theorien und Phantasien, 1. Bd., Harmonielehre. (Reprinted Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1973, ISBN 0-262-69044-6)
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1978. Theory of Harmony, translated by Roy E. Carter. Berkeley & Los
Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03464-3. Reprint ed. 1983, ISBN 0-
520-04945-4. Pbk ed. 1983, ISBN 0-520-04944-6.
Simms, Bryan. 1975. "Choron, Fétis, and the Theory of Tonality." Journal of Music
Theory 19, no. 1 (Spring): 112–38.
Thomson, William. 1999. Tonality in Music: A General Theory. San Marino, Calif.: Everett
Books. ISBN 0-940459-19-1.
West, M. L. 1994. "The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts." Music
and Letters 75, no. 2 (May): 161–79.
[edit]Further reading
Khramov M. 2008. "Project Commator and Sonantometry." Proceedings of the International
Symposium FRSM-2008. Kolkata, pp. 133–140.[citation needed]
AtonalityFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Atonal" redirects here. For the ruler of the Mixtec kingdom of Coixtlahuaca, see Atonal II.
Atonality in its broadest sense describes music that lacks a tonal center, or key. Atonality in this
sense usually describes compositions written from about 1908 to the present day where a hierarchy
of pitches focusing on a single, central tone is not used and the notes of the chromatic scale function
independently of one another (Anon. 1994). More narrowly, the term describes music that does not
conform to the system of tonal hierarchies that characterized classical European music between the
seventeenth and nineteenth centuries (Lansky, Perle, and Headlam 2001).
More narrowly still, the term is sometimes used to describe music that is neither tonal nor serial,
especially the pre-twelve-tone music of theSecond Viennese School, principally Alban Berg, Arnold
Schoenberg, and Anton Webern (Lansky, Perle, and Headlam 2001). According to John Rahn,
however, "[a]s a categorical label, 'atonal' generally means only that the piece is in the Western
tradition and is not 'tonal' " (Rahn 1980, 1); "serialism arose partly as a means of organizing more
coherently the relations used in the preserial 'free atonal' music....Thus many useful and crucial
insights about even strictly serial music depend only on such basic atonal theory" (Rahn 1980, 2)
Composers such as Alexander Scriabin, Claude Debussy, Béla Bartók, Paul Hindemith, Sergei
Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, and Edgard Varèse have written music that has been described, in full or
in part, as atonal (Baker 1980 & 1986; Bertram 2000; Griffiths 2001; Kohlhase 1983; Lansky and
Perle 2001; Obert 2004; Orvis 1974; Parks 1985; Rülke 2000; Teboul 1995–96; Zimmerman 2002).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
o 1.1 Free atonality
o 1.2 Strict atonality
2 Controversy over the term itself
3 Composing atonal music
4 Criticism of the concept of atonality
5 Criticism of atonal music
6 See also
7 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
[edit]History
While music without a tonal center had been written previously, for example Franz Liszt's Bagatelle
sans tonalité of 1885, it is with the twentieth century that the term atonality began to be applied to
pieces, particularly those written by Arnold Schoenberg and The Second Viennese School.
Their music arose from what was described as the crisis of tonality between the late nineteenth
century and early twentieth century inclassical music. This situation had come about historically
through the increasing use over the course of the nineteenth century of
ambiguous chords, less probable harmonic inflections, and the more unusual melodic and rhythmic
inflections possible within the style[s] of tonal music. The distinction between the exceptional and the
normal became more and more blurred; and, as a result, there was a concomitant loosening of the
syntactical bonds through which tones and harmonies had been related to one another. The
connections between harmonies were uncertain even on the lowest—chord-to-chord—level. On
higher levels, long-range harmonic relationships and implications became so tenuous that they
hardly functioned at all. At best, the felt probabilities of the style system had become obscure; at
worst, they were approaching a uniformity which provided few guides for either composition or
listening. (Meyer 1967, 241)
The first phase, known as "free atonality" or "free chromaticism", involved a conscious attempt to
avoid traditional diatonic harmony. Works of this period include the opera Wozzeck (1917–1922) by
Alban Berg and Pierrot Lunaire (1912) by Schoenberg.
The second phase, begun after World War I, was exemplified by attempts to create a systematic
means of composing without tonality, most famously the method of composing with 12 tones or
the twelve-tone technique. This period included Berg's Lulu and Lyric Suite, Schoenberg'sPiano
Concerto, his oratorio Die Jakobsleiter and numerous smaller pieces, as well as his last two string
quartets. Schoenberg was the major innovator of the system, but his student, Anton Webern, is
anecdotally claimed to have begun linking dynamics and tone color to the primary row, making rows
not only of pitches but of other aspects of music as well (Du Noyer 2003, 272). However, actual
analysis of Webern's twelve-tone works has so far failed to demonstrate the truth of this assertion.
One analyst concluded, following a minute examination of the Piano Variations, op. 27, that
while the texture of this music may superficially resemble that of some serial music . . . its structure
does not. None of the patterns within separate nonpitch characteristics makes audible (or even
numerical) sense in itself. The point is that these characteristics are still playing their traditional role
of differentiation. (Westergaard 1963, 109)
Twelve-tone technique, combined with the parametrization (separate organization of four aspects of
music: pitch, attack character, intensity, and duration) of Olivier Messiaen, would be taken as the
inspiration for serialism (du Noyer 2003, 272).
Atonality emerged as a pejorative term to condemn music in which chords were organized seemingly
with no apparent coherence. In Nazi Germany, atonal music was attacked as "Bolshevik" and labeled
as degenerate (Entartete Musik) along with other music produced by enemies of the Nazi regime.
Many composers had their works banned by the regime, not to be played until after its collapse
after World War II.
The Second Viennese School, and particularly 12-tone composition, was taken by avant-garde
composers in the 1950s to be the foundation of the New Music, and led to serialism and other forms
of musical innovation. Prominent post-World War II composers in this tradition arePierre
Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Luciano Berio, Krzysztof Penderecki, and Milton Babbitt. Many
composers wrote atonal music after the war, even if before they had pursued other styles,
including Elliott Carter and Witold Lutosławski. After Schoenberg's death, Igor Stravinsky began to
write music with a mixture of serial and tonal elements (du Noyer 2003, 271). Iannis
Xenakis generated pitch sets from mathematical formulae, and also saw the expansion of tonal
possibilities as part of a synthesis between the hierarchical principle and the theory of numbers,
principles which have dominated music since at least the time of Parmenides (Xenakis 1971, 204).
[edit]Free atonality
The twelve tone technique was preceded by Schoenberg's freely atonal pieces of 1908–1923, which,
though free, often have as an "integrative element...a minute intervallic cell" that in addition to
expansion may be transformed as with a tone row, and in which individual notes may "function as
pivotal elements, to permit overlapping statements of a basic cell or the linking of two or more basic
cells" (Perle 1977, 2).
The twelve tone technique was also preceded by nondodecaphonic serial composition used
independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin,Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Carl Ruggles, and
others (Perle 1977, 37). "Essentially, Schoenberg and Hauer systematized and defined for their own
dodecaphonic purposes a pervasive technical feature of 'modern' musical practice, the ostinato"
(Perle 1977, 37).
[edit]Strict atonality
Twelve-tone techniques shares with free atonality premises including the general avoidance of a key
or the overemphasis of one note, and some of the rules of twelve-tone technique are designed to
ensure this, such as the non-repetition of a pitch before the statement of all other pitches in the row.
Twelve-tone practices differ from previous atonal practices in two important ways: all pitches are
used and ordered.
[edit]Controversy over the term itself
The term "atonality" itself has been controversial. Arnold Schoenberg, whose music is generally used
to define the term, was vehemently opposed to it, arguing that "The word 'atonal' could only signify
something entirely inconsistent with the nature of tone. . . . [T]o call any relation of tones atonal is just
as farfetched as it would be to designate a relation of colors aspectral or acomplementary. There is
no such antithesis" (Schoenberg 1978, 432). He preferred the term "pantonal."[citation needed] For some,
the term continues to carry negative connotations.[weasel words]
"Atonal" developed a certain vagueness in meaning as a result of its use to describe a wide variety of
compositional approaches that deviated from traditional chords and chord progressions. Attempts to
solve these problems by using terms such as "pan-tonal," "non-tonal," "multi-tonal", "free-tonal," and
"without tonal center" instead of "atonal" have not gained broad acceptance.
[edit]Composing atonal music
Setting out to compose atonal music may seem complicated because of both the vagueness and
generality of the term. Additionally George Perle explains that, "the 'free' atonality that preceded
dodecaphony precludes by definition the possibility of self-consistent, generally applicable
compositional procedures" (Perle 1962, 9). However, he provides one example as a way to compose
atonal pieces, a pre-twelve tone technique piece by Anton Webern, which rigorously avoids anything
that suggests tonality, to choose pitches that do not imply tonality. In other words, reverse the rules
of the common practice period so that what was not allowed is required and what was required is not
allowed. This is what was done by Charles Seeger in his explanation of dissonant counterpoint,
which is a way to write atonal counterpoint (Seeger 1930).
Further, Perle agrees with Oster (1960) and Katz (1945) that, "the abandonment of the concept of
a root-generator of the individual chord is a radical development that renders futile any attempt at a
systematic formulation of chord structure and progression in atonal music along the lines of
traditional harmonic theory" (Perle 1962, 31). Atonal compositional techniques and results "are not
reducible to a set of foundational assumptions in terms of which the compositions that are collectively
designated by the expression 'atonal music' can be said to represent 'a system' of composition"
(Perle 1962, 1). Equal-interval chords are often of indeterminate root, mixed-interval chords are often
best characterized by their interval content, while both lend themselves to atonal contexts (DeLone
and Wittlich 1975, 362–72).
Perle also points out that structural coherence is most often achieved through operations on
intervallic cells. A cell "may operate as a kind of microcosmic set of fixed intervallic content, statable
either as a chord or as a melodic figure or as a combination of both. Its components may be fixed
with regard to order, in which event it may be employed, like the twelve-tone set, in its literal
transformations. . . . Individual tones may function as pivotal elements, to permit overlapping
statements of a basic cell or the linking of two or more basic cells" (Perle 1962, 9–10).
[edit]Criticism of the concept of atonality
Composer Anton Webern held that "new laws asserted themselves that made it impossible to
designate a piece as being in one key or another" (Webern 1963, 51). Composer Walter Piston, on
the other hand, said that, out of long habit, whenever performers "play any little phrase they will hear
it in some key—it may not be the right one, but the point is they will play it with a tonal sense. . . .
[T]he more I feel I know Schoenberg's music the more I believe he thought that way himself. . . . And
it isn't only the players; it's also the listeners. They will hear tonality in everything" (Westergaard
1968, 15).
[edit]Criticism of atonal music
Swiss conductor, composer, and musical philosopher Ernest Ansermet, a critic of atonal music, wrote
extensively on this in the book Les fondements de la musique dans la conscience
humaine (Ansermet 1961), where he argued that the classical musical language was a precondition
for musical expression with its clear, harmonious structures. Ansermet argued that a tone system can
only lead to a uniform perception of music if it is deduced from just a single interval. For Ansermet
this interval is the fifth (Mosch 2004, 96). Modern atonal music, incomprehensible to Ansermet,
chooses interval relations seemingly at random and cannot achieve such an impact, ethos, or
catharsis for an audience.
[edit]See also
Wikiquote has a collection of
quotations related
to: Atonality
Serialism
Emancipation of the dissonance
Klangfarbenmelodie
[edit]Sources
Anon. 1994. "Atonal." The Oxford Dictionary of Music, 2nd edition, edited by Michael Kennedy.
Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198691629
Ansermet, Ernest. 1961. Les fondements de la musique dans la conscience humaine. 2 v.
Neuchâtel: La Baconnière.
Baker, James M. 1980. "Scriabin's Implicit Tonality". "Music Theory Spectrum" 2:1–18.
Baker, James M. 1986. The Music of Alexander Scriabin. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Bertram, Daniel Cole. 2000. "Prokofiev as a Modernist, 1907–1915". PhD diss. New Haven: Yale
University.
DeLone, Peter, and Gary Wittlich (eds.). 1975. Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
Du Noyer, Paul (ed.). 2003. "Contemporary", in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music: From
Rock, Jazz, Blues and Hip Hop to Classical, Folk, World and More, pp. 271-272. London: Flame
Tree Publishing. ISBN 1-9040-4170-1
Griffiths, Paul. 2001. "Varèse, Edgard [Edgar] (Victor Achille Charles)". The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.
Katz, Adele T. 1945. Challenge to Musical Traditions: A New Concept of Tonality. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Reprint edition, New York: Da Capo, 1972.
Kohlhase, Hans. 1983. "Aussermusikalische Tendenzen im Frühschaffen Paul Hindemiths.
Versuch uber die Kammermusik Nr. 1 mit Finale 1921". Hamburger Jahrbuch für
Musikwissenschaft 6:183–223.
Lansky, Paul, and George Perle. 2001. "Atonality §2: Differences between Tonality and
Atonality". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.
Lansky, Paul, George Perle, and Dave Headlam. 2001. "Atonality". The New Grove Dictionary of
Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.
Meyer, Leonard B. 1967. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-
Century Culture. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. (Second edition 1994.)
Mosch, Ulrich. 2004. Musikalisches Hören serieller Musik: Untersuchungen am Beispiel von
Pierre Boulez' «Le Marteau sans maître». Saarbrücken: Pfau-Verag.
Obert, Simon. 2004. "Zum Begriff Atonalität: Ein Vergleich von Anton Weberns 'Sechs
Bagatellen für Streichquartett' op. 9 und Igor Stravinskijs 'Trois pièces pour quatuor à cordes'".
In Das Streichquartett in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts: Bericht über das Dritte
Internationale Symposium Othmar Schoeck in Zürich, 19. und 20. Oktober 2001. Schriftenreihe
der Othmar Schoeck-Gesellschaft 4, edited by Beat A. Föllmi and Michael Baumgartner. Tutzing:
Schneider.
Orvis, Joan. 1974. "Technical and stylistic features of the piano etudes of Stravinsky, Bartók, and
Prokofiev". DMus Piano pedagogy: Indiana University.
Oster, Ernst. 1960. "Re: A New Concept of Tonality (?)", Journal of Music Theory 4:96.
Parks, Richard S. 1985. "Tonal Analogues as Atonal Resources and Their Relation to form in
Debussy's Chromatic Etude". Journal of Music Theory 29, no. 1 (Spring): 33–60.
Perle, George. 1962. Serial Composition and Atonality: An Introduction to the Music of
Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07430-0.
Perle, George. 1977. Serial Composition and Atonality: An Introduction to the Music of
Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern. Fourth Edition. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University
of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03395-7.
Rahn, John. 1980. Basic Atonal Theory. New York: Longman, Inc. ISBN 0-582-28117-2.
Rülke, Volker. 2000. "Bartóks Wende zur Atonalität: Die "Études" op. 18". Archiv für
Musikwissenschaft 57, no. 3:240–63.
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1978. Theory of Harmony, translated by Roy Carter. Berkeley & Los
Angeles: University of California Press.
Seeger, Charles. 1930. "On Dissonant Counterpoint." Modern Music 7, no. 4:25–31.
Teboul, Jean-Claude. 1995–96. "Comment analyser le neuvième interlude en si♭ du "Ludus
tonalis" de Paul Hindemith? (Hindemith ou Schenker?) ". Ostinato Rigore: Revue Internationale
d'Études Musicales, nos. 6–7:215–32.
Webern, Anton. 1963. The Path to the New Music, translated by Leo Black. Bryn Mawr.
Pennsylvania: Theodore Presser; London: Universal Edition.
Westergaard, Peter. 1963. "Webern and 'Total Organization': An Analysis of the Second
Movement of Piano Variations, Op. 27."Perspectives of New Music 1, no. 2 (Spring): 107–20.
Westergaard, Peter. 1968. "Conversation with Walter Piston". Perspectives of New Music 7, no.1
(Fall-Winter) 3-17.
Xenakis, Iannis. 1971. Formalized Music: Thought and Mathematics in Composition.
Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press. Revised edition, 1992. Harmonologia Series
No. 6. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press. ISBN 0-945-19324-6
Zimmerman, Daniel J. 2002. "Families without Clusters in the Early Works of Sergei Prokofiev".
PhD diss. Chicago: University of Chicago.
[edit]Further reading
Beach, David (ed.). 1983. "Schenkerian Analysis and Post-Tonal Music", Aspects of
Schenkerian Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1966. "Ansermets Polemik gegen Schönberg." Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 127,
no. 5:179–83.
Krausz, Michael. 1984. "The Tonal and the Foundational: Ansermet on Stravinsky". The Journal
of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 42:383–86.
Philippot, Michel. 1964. "Ansermet’s Phenomenological Metamorphoses." Translated by Edward
Messinger. Perspectives of New Music2, no. 2 (Spring-Summer): 129–40. Originally published
as "Métamorphoses Phénoménologiques." Critique. Revue Générale des Publications
Françaises et Etrangères, no. 186 (November 1962).
Radano, Ronald M. 1993. New Musical Figurations: Anthony Braxton's Cultural
Critique Chicago: Univ
Forma musicalOrigem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.
Este artigo ou secção contém uma lista de fontes ou uma única fonte no fim do texto, mas estas não são citadas no corpo do artigo, o que compromete averificabilidade. (desde novembro de 2009)Você pode melhorar este artigo introduzindo notas de rodapé citando as fontes, inserindo-as no corpo do texto quando necessário.
Forma musical, nos estudos acadêmicos de música, harmonia avançada ou forma e análise, entre
outros, refere-se à estrutura de uma peça musical específica. Por exemplo, uma peça pode ser
escrita na forma binária, forma sonata allegro, ou ainda outra, entre várias.
A forma é a estrutura e o desenho da música. Identificamos os objectos que vemos pela sua forma.
Assim, um patim não tem a mesma forma que tem uma bicicleta. Na música se dá o mesmo;
usamos a audição e a visão, para identificarmos a forma. Música é essencialmente formada de duas
coisas:
Forma e
Estilo, ou gênero .
Índice
[esconder]
1 Música e sua Forma Tradicional
o 1.1 Rondó
o 1.2 Forma Canção
1.2.1 Idade Média
1.2.2 No Renascimento
1.2.3 No Barroco
1.2.4 Era clássica
1.2.5 No Romantismo
1.2.6 Século XX até hoje
o 1.3 Forma Sonata Allegro
o 1.4 Tema e variações
o 1.5 Forma binária
o 1.6 Forma Ternária
o 1.7 Forma Estrófica
o 1.8 O Concerto
o 1.9 Forma Moderna
2 Referências e outas leituras
[editar]Música e sua Forma Tradicional
Através dos anos a música tem mantido formas fixas nas composições eruditas e até populares,
mas no século XX isto mudou. O que segue é uma breve amostra destas formas mais tradicionais
que se encontram nas composições de compositores que se destacaram internacionalmente
[editar]Rondó
Forma Rondó é aquela que introduz um tema - chamamos de (A) -, após o fim de "A", apresenta um
novo tema - (B) -, e após seu término retorna ao tema original (A) e após o término de "A",
novamente introduz um novo tema - (C) -, e assim por diante sempre apresentando um novo tema
após a repetição do tema principal (A). A Forma rondó é vista:
A-B-A-C-A-D-A etc.
Esta forma é informalmente referida como "abacada". Algumas vezes o rondó é simétrico e
aparecerá da forma ABACADA.
Exemplo desta Forma se encontra frequentemente em rondós de Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart e
outros classicistas.
[editar]Forma Canção
Esta é a forma popular que mais se usa hoje em dia nas canções pops. Uma forma muito antiga que
originou-se da música folclórica daidade média e alcançou uma divulgação bem expansiva no
mundo.
O esquemático simples dela representa-se por:
AA:B:AA:B…podendo ser abreviada por AAB ou AAB:A
Na música moderna, popular, o tema do B é o refrão, e se repete várias vezes no final.
Diversos compositores usaram esta forma mas o maior deles é Franz Schubert, com centenas
de canções;
Além das chansons, na França; temos os equivalentes:
Lied , na Alemanha;
Song ou Art Song nos Estados Unidos e Inglaterra;
Canzone , na Itália;
Canção em Portugal e no Brasil.
Na Idade Média, os franceses desenvolveram a polifonia na Chanson até o fim do
Renascimento. No Barroco os Italianos lideraram com asCanzone e Ária e continuaram até
a Era Clássica. Mas, no Romantismo, os Alemães foram ao auge com os Lieder, o que causou
um entusiasmo nos franceses em renascer sua Forma Chanson. Com isto os ingleses
introduziram a Art Song e compositores do mundo inteiro continuaram a escrever canções que
continuam a ser uma Forma bem popular até hoje. Entre alguns proeminentes compositores
de canção ("Lieder", "Chansons", "Songs", or "Canzoni"), podemos citar:
[editar]Idade Média
França: Guillaume de Machaut
[editar]No Renascimento
França: Josquin Desprez, Pierre Cadéac, Pierre Clereau, Nicolas Millot, Pierre
Passereau, Clément Janequin
Franco-Flamenco: Cornelius Canis, Jan Nasco, Nicolas Payen, Orlando de Lassus
Itália: Claudio Monteverdi, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Francisco Leontaritis
Inglaterra: William Byrd, Anonymous IV
[editar]No Barroco
França: Denis Gaultier
Itália: Adriano Banchieri, Claudio Monteverdi, Domenico Alberti, Francesco Durante
Inglaterra: John Dowland, Henry Purcell
Alemanha: Heinrich Schütz, Dietrich Buxtehude, Johann Sebastian Bach
[editar]Era clássica
Alemanha e Áustria: Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Itália: Luigi Boccherini, Domenico Cimarosa
Inglaterra: William Boyce
[editar]No Romantismo
França: Gabriel Fauré, Claude Debussy, Hector Berlioz, César Franck
Alemanha, Suíça e Áustria: Louis Niedermeyer, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Ludwig
van Beethoven, Richard Strauss,Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy,Hugo Wolf
Itália: Ottorino Respighi, Gaetano Donizetti, Gioacchino Rossini
Hungria: Franz Liszt, Béla Bartók; Polônia: Frédéric Chopin; Noruega: Edvard Hagerup
Grieg; Tchecos: Antonín Dvořák; Finlândia: Jean Sibelius. Suécia: Hugo Alfvén
União Soviética: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Sergei
Rachmaninoff, Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, Modest Mussorgsky; Dinamarca: Carl
Nielsen
[editar]Século XX até hoje
França: Francis Poulenc, Darius Milhaud, Georges Brassens, Jacques Brel, Édith
Piaf, Camille, Olivia Ruiz
Brasil: Heitor Villa-Lobos, Ernesto Nazareth, Egberto Gismonti, mais popular e
recente Sérgio Mendes
Inglaterra: Benjamin Britten, Ralph Vaughan Williams, John Nicholson Ireland e nas mais
populares e recentes, The Beatles
Alemanha, Suíça e Áustria: Gustav Mahler,Alban Berg, Kurt Weill, Arnold Schoenberg
Itália: Luciano Berio, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco
Estônia*: Arvo Pärt
EUA: Charles Ives, Samuel Barber, Aaron Copland, Arthur Farwell
É importante lembrar que estes mesmos compositores que foram famosos com suas canções
também escreveram diversas composições noutras Formas e de outros gêneros.
[editar]Forma Sonata Allegro
Esta forma mais complexa aparece muito nas sinfonias e concertos, tanto para instrumentos
como para orquestras e em Sonatas também. Em geral no primeiro e último movimento de um
concerto ou sinfonia de 3 movimentos e frequentemente no tempo Allegro (andamento). A
Forma Sonata Allegro se destaca com uma Introdução, o desenvolvimento dos temas e a
recapitulação das ideias. Foi a forma do auge desde o período do Classicismo ao fim do
período do Romantismo e se encontra em diversos movimentos das sinfonias, sonatas,
quartetos de Mozart, Beethoven, Brahams, etc e concertos de Chopin, Lliszt, Richard Strauss
etc. Na Forma Sonata Allegro temos:
A introdução - A Exposição do tema principal, aonde o motivo é apresentado e explorado
inicialmente se repetindo com muitas variações. Primeiramente o tema feminino, em geral
na tônica da escala diatônica, é introduzido e em seguida o tema masculino - o tema
secundário -, em geral na dominante da escala. Durante o período clássico, não houve
muitas modulações, nem alterações cromáticas drásticas na harmonia da composição.
O Desenvolvimento - a parte do movimento aonde a música desenvolve as ideias iniciais,
os motivos introduzidos inicialmente, temas primários e secundários eles se repetem e
formam variações até a exaustão e retornam a tônica para a conclusão. Este movimento
inicia na modulação da dominante, deixada pela cadência final do tema da Introdução.
A Recapitulação - A conclusão musical. Os temas recapitulam as ideias apresentadas
brevemente e reafirmam a tonalidade musical da tônica para a grande cadência final.
[editar]Tema e variações
Ver artigo principal: Variação (música)
Aqui o tema é apresentado, em geral em duas frases pelo menos, podendo ser apenas
uns 8 compassos, ou até uns 16, mas não limitados a esta quantidade. Em seguida as
variações iniciam. A cada repetição do tema uma variação nova. É por aí que nós
encontramos composições com nomes do tipo "32 variações de Mozart". O compositor,
através de sua composição, está tentando exibir sua capacidade máxima de criar novas
variações a cada repetição do tema introduzido inicialmente. O compositor usa não só
modulação na música como ele pode também usar várias outras técnicas, como:
transpor;
espelhar o tema (imitar a melodia noutra voz a partir de outra nota inicial);
inversão (inverter a direção melódica na pauta);
retrógrada (inverter a melodia tocando da última à primeira nota da frase temática);
imitação (imitar o contorno melódico da música com diferenças nos intervalos ou
duração das notas musicais),
variar o ritmo (diminuindo a duração de cada nota do motivo inicial),
mudar o tempo da dinâmica, etc.
A Música barroca é típica desta forma - principalmente quando usando "pergunta e
respostas" entre as vozes, em que o tema se repete de várias formas. Por exemplo, as
15 Invenções e sinfonias de Johann Sebastian Bach.
Dois bons exemplos para esta forma em gêneros musicais são:
O canto gregoriano, especialmente quando cantado canonicamente;
A fuga barroca com seu formato imitativo e cheio de variações em cada ação das
vozes polifônicas.
Dois exemplos de obras compostas com simplicidade nesta forma são
o Bolero de Maurice Ravel e o Canon em Ré de Johann Pachelbel.
Um exemplo de uma composição mais complexa usando esta forma, tema e variação:
Capricho n.º 24 em lá menor para violino de Niccolò Paganini, consistindo de 1 (um)
tema, 11 (onze) variações e um finale.
O Tema é "A", e a representação é:
A, A1, A2, A3, A4, etc
com cada "A" representando a variação do tema com técnicas acima descritas.
[editar]Forma binária
Em inglês, Binary Form. Nesta forma a música se apresenta em: AA:BB: Encontramos
várias suites do período barroco com as pequenas danças neste formato. A Forma
também é frequentemente encontrada no Coral Sacro.
Exemplo:
Bach escreveu inúmeros corais neste formato. Um exemplo claro é o Versus VII da
Cantata nº4, Christ lag in todesbanden. Bach emprestou a melodia da
Missa, Victimae Paschali Laudes, original para as Festividades da Páscoa da Igreja
Católica. Neste Coral, Wir essen und leben ("Nós Celebramos Sua Ceia Sagrada",
em Português), Bach usa um total de doze compassos (sem contar com a repetição
de quatro compassos que se repetem no início, sem mudança alguma). A Parte "A"
tem apenas quatro compassos, mas ele repete esta parte como sugere a Forma
Binária (levando a Parte "A" de quatro compassos a oito após a repetição). Na
repetição de "A" não há mudança alguma no arranjo musical, somente o texto muda.
Na parte "B" (nova linha melódica), Bach muda a possibilidade deste coral estar na
forma estrófica e deixa o arranjo como na forma canção, mas ele não repetiu a parte
"B" embora manteve a parte melódica em oito compassos, dando a simetria da
forma binária no final (oito compassos em cada parte); sendo quatro compassos
introduzindo o segundo tema e os últimos quatro compassos da parte "B" Bach
divide ao meio, estendendo o tema "B" por dois compassos e numa cadência final os
últimos dois compassos, em vez de Amen, usa o Hallelujah num ritardando. Bach
utiliza, ao todo, 48 notas (semínimas) no valor de unidade de tempo para os doze
compassos (sem contar com a repetição idêntica dos primeiros quatro compassos).
Observação: Também há referências à Forma do Coral Luterano como "Forma Coral",
mas devemos notar que o Coral é um gênero de Música e não uma "forma" em si,
quando analisamos Música. O Coral pode, no entanto, ter uma Forma estrófica, ou
mesmo, como aqui mencionada, Binária, ou até mesmo Canção, ou outra forma
qualquer.
Bourreé em Ré para alaúde de J.S. Bach.
[editar]Forma Ternária
Como o nome implica, é de certa forma similar a forma Binária, mas é representada na
seguinte estrutura: ABA' invariavelmente a primeira parte (A) se repete, mas quando isto
acontece há uma leve modificação---não é apenas uma repetição do que já foi
apresentado anteriormente.
[editar]Forma Estrófica
Nesta forma temos os hinos e corais litúrgicos, aonde o Tema "A" é o verso apresentado
e a cada nova estrofe o tema melódico se repete.
O próprio Hino Nacional do Brasil é um exemplo. O tema "A" se apresenta na primeira
estrofe:
Ouviram do Ipiranga as margens plácidas, etc, até o fim da primeira estrofe
e quando a segunda estrofe inicia, em:
Deitado eternamente em berço esplêndido… etc,
estamos de volta repetindo o tema A.
Neste caso temos "A, A, A ,A", sendo que temos dois versos na primeira estrofe e mais
dois na segunda.
[editar]O Concerto
Estas estruturas são definidas por material temático, melodias, centro tonal etc. Nas
épocas mais primitivas da música era mais comum ver as variações com mudanças
simples na tonalidade Maior e menor para cada movimento. Em geral o primeiro
movimento era mais galante, 'rápido no tempo Allegro com uma tonalidade maior. Já o
segundo movimento ficaria mais lento, no tempo Andante, ou Largo, logo a tonalidade
mudaria também de maior (do primeiro movimento (frequentemente Allegro) para menor.
O terceiro movimento poderia ser apresentado numa outra forma e de volta a tonalidade
principal, maior e até num Allegro Vivace para um final triunfal e imponente. Em geral a
cada movimento a Forma muda.
[editar]Forma Moderna
Mais recentemente a maneira de lidar com as formas mudaram e tem sido demonstradas
através de superimposição, justaposição, estratificação e outras interrupções e
simultaneidades. Compositores modernos usaram, por exemplo, o minimalismo para
demonstrar o mínimo possível de contexto harmônico numa obra, mantendo a música ao
máximo de sua simplicidade, essência e ainda expondo uma ideia toda complexa e
intrínseca. Como exemplo temos Arvo Pärt com sua obra Spiegel im Spiegel.