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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 1998 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.1998, Vol. 74, No. 1,272 279 0022-3514/98/$3.00

E f f e c ts o f S e l f- G e n e r a t e d F a c ia l E x p r e s s i o n s o n M o o dC h r i s L . K l e i n k e , T h o m a s R . P e t e r s o n , a n d T h o m a s R . R u t l e d g eU n i v e rs i ty o f A l a s k a A n c h o r a g e

Two exper iments were conducted in which par ticipants looked at photographs (Expe r iment 1, n =129) or s l ides (E xper ime nt 2, n = 90) of people engaging in pos i tive or negat ive fac ial expressions .Participants attempted to com mu nica te these facial expressions as accurately a s they could to a videocam era while vie wing themselves in a m irror or without viewin g themselves in a mirror . Par ticipantsin a con trol grou p maintained neutral facial expressions. Participants experienced increased positivemoods when they engaged in pos i t ive fac ial expressions and decreased pos i t ive m oods when theyengaged in negative facial expressions. Th ese effects were enhanced when participants v iew ed them-selves in a mirror. The effects of facial expressions on positive affec t were stronger for participantswith high private self-consciousness. Results were integrated with research identifying individualswh o are responsive to self-produced versus situational cues and with theory and research on self-awareness.

R e c o g n i t i o n t h a t f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s a r e i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t oe m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e h a s a l o n g a n d i n t e r e s t i n g h i s t o r y ( A d e l -m a n n & Z a j o n c , 1 9 8 9 ; I z a r d , 1 9 9 0 ) . R e f e r e n c e s t o th e p r o c e s so f in t e n s i f y i n g o n e ' s e m o t i o n s t h r o u g h a m p l i f i c a t io n o f e x p r e s -s i o n s c a n b e f o u n d i n th e w r i t i n g s o f H o m e r a n d S h a k e s p e a r e( I z a r d , 1 9 9 0 ) . D a r w i n ( 1 8 7 2 / 1 9 6 5 ) a n d W i l l i a m J a m e s ( 1 8 9 0 /1 9 5 0 ) b o t h i n c l u d e d f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s a s a n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o -

n e n t i n t h e i r t h e o r i e s o f e m o t i o n . M o r e r e c e n t t h e o r i e s f o c u s i n go n t h e r o l e o f fa c i a l f e e d b a c k i n re g u l a t i n g e m o t i o n s w e r e d e v e l -o p e d b y T o m k i n s ( 1 9 6 2 , 1 9 6 3 ) , G e l l h o r n ( 1 9 6 4 ) , I z a r d ( 1 9 7 1,1 9 7 7 ) , a n d Z a j o n c , M u r p h y , a n d I n g l e h a r t ( 1 9 8 9 ) .

D u r i n g t h e p a s t 2 0 y e ar s , r e s e a rc h e r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o e x p e r -i m e n t a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s i n f l u e n c e e m o -t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e . O n e a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n t o s h o w t h a t r e s e a r c hp a r t i c i p a n t s ' e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s i n v a r i o u s s it u a t io n s a r e d e -c r e a s e d w h e n t h e y m i n i m i z e t h e i r f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s . A n o t h e ra p p r o a c h h a s b e e n to s h o w t h a t r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s ' e m o t i o n a le x p e r i e n c e s a r e e n h a n c e d w h e n t h e y a c c e n t u a t e t h e i r f a c i a l e x -p r e s s i o n s. B e c a u s e o f t h e n e c e s s i ty t o m a i n t a i n s t ri c t e x p e r i m e n -t a l c o n t ro l s , s t u d ie s u s i n g t h e s e t w o a p p r o a c h e s h a v e h a d v a r i o u sd e g r e e s o f s u c c e s s i n c a p t u r i n g t h e s p o n t a n e i t y o f n a t u ra l l yo c c u r r i n g e m o t i o n s t h a t w e r e p o s t u l a t e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l f a c i a lf e e d b a c k t h e o r ie s . H o w e v e r , t a ke n a s a w h o l e , t h e s e s t u d ie s h a v es u p p o r t e d f a c i a l f e e d b a c k t h e o r i e s o f e m o t i o n b y c o n f i r m i n gt h a t r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s ' e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s a r e m o d i f i e dw h e n t h e i r f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s a r e a l t e r e d ( f o r r e v i e w s , s e e A d e l -m a n n & Z a j o n c , 1 9 8 9 ; I z a r d , 1 9 9 0 ; M a n s t e a d , 1 9 8 8 ) .

Chris L. Kleinke, Thomas R. Peterson, and Thomas R. Rutledge,Depar tment of Psychology, Univers i ty of Alaska Anchorage. Thom as R.Peterson is now a doctoral student at the University of New Mexico,and Thomas R. Rutledge is now a doctoral student at the University ofBri t ish Columbia, Br i t ish Columbia, Canada.

We express appreciat ion to Ann e Lazenby and Rae Thompson fortheir assistance in conducting the studies.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to ChrisL. Kleinke, D epar tment of Psychology, Univers ity of Alaska Anchorage,

Anchorage, Alaska 99508-8224.27 2

O u r e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r i b u t e t o r e se a r c h t e s t -i n g t h e f a c i a l f e e d b a c k h y p o t h e s i s b y u s i n g a d i f f e r e n t m e t h o do f m a n i p u l a t i n g f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s t h a n h a s b e e n u s e d i n th ep a s t . R e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e i n s t r u c t e d t o l o o k a t p h o t o -g r a p h s o r s l i d e s o f p e o p l e e n g a g i n g i n v a r i o u s f a c ia l e x p r e s s i o n sa n d t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s a s a c c u r a t e l y a s p o s s i b l et o a v i d e o c a m e r a . T h i s m e t h o d o l o g y d i f f e r s f r o m t h a t o fM c C a u l , H o l m e s , a n d S o l o m o n ( 1 9 8 2 ) , w h o i n s t ru c t e d p a r t ic i -p a n t s t o p o r t r a y s p e c i f i c e m o t i o n s w i t h t h e i r f a c e s , b e c a u s e i tm i n i m i z e s e x p e r i m e n t a l d e m a n d s ( s e e L a i r d , 1 9 7 4 , p. 4 7 7 ) . I tw a s p r e d i c t e d t h a t p a r t i c ip a n t s w h o e m u l a t e d t h e f ac i a l e x p r e s -s i o n s w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e t h e e m o t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e f a c i a le x p r e s s i o n s t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h a n w o u l d p a r t i c ip a n t s i n ac o n t r o l g r o u p w h o w e r e i n s t r u c t e d t o l o o k a t t h e p h o t o g r a p h so r s l i d e s w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g a n e u t r a l f a c i a l e x p r e s s io n . T o p l a c et h e e x p e r i m e n t s r e p o r t e d h e r e i n p e r s p e c t i v e , i t w i l l b e h e l p f u lt o p r o v i d e a b r i e f r e v i e w o f s t u d i e s i n w h i c h r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i-p a n t s ' f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s w e r e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y m a n i p u l a t e d .

L a i r d a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s i n d u c e d r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s t o e n -g a g e i n p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s b y a t t a c h i n ge l e c t r o d e s t o t h e i r f a c e s a n d a s k i n g t h e m t o t e n s e o r r e la x p a r t i c -u l a r f a c i a l m u s c l e s a s p a r t o f a s t u d y o f " t h e a c t i v i t y o f f a c i a lm u s c l e s " ( D u c l o s e t a l ., 1 9 8 9 ; D u n c a n & L a i r d , 1 9 7 7 ; L a i r d ,1 9 7 4 ; L a i r d & C r o s b y , 1 9 7 4 ; L a i r d , W a g e n e r , H a l a l , & S z e g d a ,1 9 8 2 ) . I n g e n e ra l , re s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s r e a c t e d w i t h m o r e p o s i -t i v e m o o d s w h e n t h e y e n g a g e d i n p o s i t i v e f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s a n dw i t h m o r e n e g a t i v e m o o d s w h e n t h e y e n g a g e d i n n e g a t i v e f a c i a le x p r e s s i o n s . S i m i l a r r e s u l ts u s i n g t h i s m e t h o d o l o g y w e r e r e -p o r t e d b y M c A r t h u r , S o l o m o n , a n d J a f f e ( 1 9 8 0 ) , R h o d e w a l ta n d C o m e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) , a n d R u tl e d g e a n d H u p k a ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

A s o m e w h a t l e s s in t r u s i v e m e t h o d o f m a n i p u l a t i n g f a c i a l e x -p r e s s i o n s w a s d e s i g n e d b y i n s t r u c t i n g r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s t oh o l d a p e n w i t h t h e i r l i p s ( s m i l i n g e x p r e s s i o n ) o r w i t h t h e i rt e e t h ( f r o w n i n g e x p r e s s i o n ; M a r t i n , H a r lo w , & S t r a c k , 1 9 9 2 ;S t r a c k , M a r t i n , & S t e p p e r , 1 9 8 8 ) . R e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s r e a c t e dm o r e p o s i t iv e l y to s t i m u l u s m a t e r i a ls w h e n t h e y w e r e i n d u c e dt o s m i l e t h a n w h e n t h e y w e r e i n d u c e d t o f r o w n . L a r s e n , K a s i -m a t i s , an d F r e y ( 1 9 9 2 ) u s e d a s i m i l a r m e t h o d i n w h i c h r e s e a r c h

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F A C IA L F E E D B A C K 2 7 3p a r t i c ip a n t s w e r e i n s t r u c t e d t o p u l l to g e t h e r ( f r o w n ) o r k e e pa p a r t ( n e u t r a l ) t w o g o l f te e s t h a t h a d b e e n a t t a c h e d t o th e i rf o r e h e a d . P a r t ic i p a n t s r e a c t e d w i t h m o r e n e g a t i v e m o o d s w h e nt h e y h a d b e e n i n d u c e d t o f r o w n .

T h r e e s t u d ie s u s e d e v e n m o r e n a t u r a l is t i c m e t h o d s o f m a n i p u -l a t i n g f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s . K l e i n k e a n d W a l t o n ( 1 9 8 2 ) p r o v i d e dp o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t t o a g r o u p o f re s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s w h e n -e v e r t h e y s m i l e d d u r i n g a n i n t e r v i e w . S m i l e - r e i n f o r c e d p a r t i c i-p a n t s r e a c t e d w i t h m o r e p o s i t i v e m o o d s t h a n d i d p a r t i c i p a n tsw h o w e r e g i v e n n o n c o n t i n g e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t . R e s e a r c h p a r t i c i -p a n t s i n a s t u d y b y K r a u t ( 1 9 8 2 ) w e r e i n s t r u c t e d t o e n g a g e i np o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s w h i l e s m e l l i n g o d o r s t h a tr a n g e d f r o m p l e a s a n t t o u n p l e a s a n t . P a r t i c i p a n t s ' r a t i n g s o f th eo d o r s w e r e i n f lu e n c e d m a i n l y b y t h e o d o r b u t w e r e m o d e r a t e db y t h e i r f a c i a l e x p r e s s io n s . Z a j o n c e t a l. ( 1 9 8 9 ) m a n i p u l a t e df a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s ( a n d r e s u l t i n g f a c i a l t e m p e r a t u r e ) b y h a v i n gr e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s r e a d s t o r i e s c o n t a i n i n g p h o n e m e s w h o s ep r o n u n c i a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e m o v e m e n t o f d i f f e r e n t f a c ia l m u s c l e s .P a r t i c ip a n t s r e a c t e d w i t h m o r e p o s i t i v e m o o d s w h e n t h e p h o -n e m e s t h e y r e a d r e s u l t e d i n f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s t h a t f a c i l i t a t e d ac o o l i n g o f t h e f a c e .I n a c r i t i q u e o f re s e a r c h m a n i p u l a t i n g f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s , W i n -t o n ( 1 9 8 6 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t m o s t s t u d i e s t e st e d a dimensionalm o d e l o f th e f a c i a l f e e d b a c k h y p o t h e s i s i n w h i c h n e g a t i v e f a c i a le x p r e s s i o n s r e s u l t e d i n g e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e m o o d s a n d p o s i t i v ef a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s r e s u l t e d i n g e n e r a l l y p o s i t i v e m o o d s . S i n c eW i n t o n ' s c r i ti q u e , D u c l o s e t a l . ( 1 9 8 9 ) p e r f o r m e d a categoricals t u d y i n w h i c h s p e c i f i c f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s w e r e s h o w n t o e l i c i ts p e c i f i c e m o t i o n s . M a t s u m o t o ( 1 9 8 7 ) a r g u e d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h er e s u l ts o f f a c i a l m a n i p u l a t i o n s t u d i es s u p p o r t i n g t h e f a c i a l f e e d -b a c k h y p o t h e s i s w e r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , t h e i r e f f e c t s i z e sw e r e g e n e r a l ly l o w . I z a r d ( 1 9 9 0 ) r e a n a l y z e d M a t s u m o t o ' s d a t aa n d f o u n d t h e e f f e c t s iz e s f o r s t u d ie s u s i n g n a t u r a l is t i c m a n i p u -l a t io n s o f f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s w e r e f a i r l y h i g h ( r = . 4 5 7 ) ,w h e r e a s t h e e f f e c t s i z e s f o r s t u d i e s u s i n g e x p e r i m e n t e r - m a n i p u -l a t e d f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s w e r e o n t h e l o w e r s i d e ( r = . 2 7 5 ) .I z a r d c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e f f e c ts o f e x p e r i m e n t e r - m a n i p u l a t e df a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s o n m o o d s , a l t h o u g h g e n e r a l l y r e l i a b l e , a r ew e a k f o r th e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s : ( a ) T h e i n n e r v a t i o n o f s p o n t a n e -o u s a n d v o l u n t a r y ( m a n i p u l a t e d ) f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s i n v o l v e sd i f f e r e n t n e u r a l p a t h w a y s , ( b ) c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n v o l u n t a r y( m a n i p u l a t e d ) f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s a n d e m o t i o n s a r e m o d e r a t e db y l e a r n i n g , ( c ) m a n i p u l a t e d f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s m a y n o t b ec o n g r u e n t w i t h t h e si t u a ti o n , a n d ( d ) t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a -t i o n m a y b e p e r c e i v e d b y r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s a s u n t e n a b l e a n di n t r u s i v e .

I n a d d i t i o n t o u s i n g a d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d o f m o d i f y i n g f a c i a le x p r e s s i o n s t h a n h a s b e e n u s e d i n t h e p a s t , o u r e x p e r i m e n t sw e r e d e s i g n e d t o m a k e t h e f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c c o n t r i b u t i o n s t ot h e r e s e a r c h e x a m i n i n g t h e f a c i a l f e e d b a c k h y p o t h e s i s :

1 . L a i r d a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s ( D u c l o s e t a l. , 1 9 8 9 ; D u n c a n &L a i r d , 1 9 7 7 ; L a i r d & C r o s b y , 1 9 7 4 ; L a i r d e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ) c o n -c l u d e d t h a t p e o p l e d i f f e r i n t h e i r p r o p e n s i t y t o r e s p o n d t o s e l f -p r o d u c e d e m o t i o n a l c u e s . I n E x p e r i m e n t 1 , i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r -e n c e s w e r e a s s e s s e d w i t h t h e R e v i s e d S e l f - C o n s c i o u s n e s s S c a l e( S c h e i e r & C a r v e r , 1 9 8 5 ) . P e o p l e w i t h h i g h p r i v a t e s e lf - c o n -s c i o u s n e s s a r e v e r y c o g n i z a n t o f t h e ir t h o u g h t s , f e e l i n g s , an dm o o d s ( C a r v e r & S c h e i e r , 1 9 7 8; S c h e i e r & C a r v er , 1 9 7 7 ) . I tw a s t h e r e f o r e p r e d i c t e d t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s w i t h h i g h s c o r e s o n

p r i v a t e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s w o u l d b e m o r e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e i rf a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s t h a n w o u l d p a r t i c ip a n t s w i t h l o w s c o r e s o np r i v a t e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

2 . L a i r d ( 1 9 7 4 ) h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t a n im p o r t a n t m e c h a n i s mm e d i a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s o n e m o t i o n s i s se l f -p e r c e p t i o n ( B e r n , 1 9 7 2 ) . A n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o l o o k s p e c i fi -c a l l y a t t h e e f f e c t s o f s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n b y i n c l u d i n g a t r e a t m e n tg r o u p i n w h i c h p a r t i c i p a n t s o b s e r v e d t h e m s e l v e s i n a m i r r o r .S e l f - p e r c e p t i o n t h e o r y w o u l d p r e d i c t t h a t f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n sw o u l d h a v e a g r e a t er e f f e c t o n m o o d s w h e n t h e m i r r o r w a sp r e s e n t b e c a u s e o f p a r t ic i p a n t s ' h e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s o f t h e irb e h a v i o r s . R e s e a r c h a n d t h e o r y o n s e l f - f o c u s e d a t t e n t i o n ( D u -v a l & W i c k l u n d , t 9 7 2 ; W i c k l u n d , 1 9 7 5 ) w o u l d a l s o p r e d i c t as t r o n g e r e f f e c t o f fa c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s o n m o o d w h e n p a r t i c ip a n t sv i e w e d t h e m s e l v e s i n a m i r r o r b e c a u s e p a r t i c i p a n t s w o u l d b em o r e a w a r e o f t h e ir m o o d s ( C a r v e r & S c h e i e r, 1 9 7 8 ; S c h e i e r &C a r v e r , 1 9 7 7 ) .

E x p e r i m e n t 1M e t h o d

Par t i c ipan t sPart ic ipan ts wer e 73 wom en and 58 men w how er e r ec r u i ted as vo lun-teers f rom v ar ious undergraduate courses . A l l par ticipants were Ca uca-

sian. Participants range d in age from 17 to 58 years (M = 27.2 years,Mdn = 25 years, SD = 9.13 years ) .

E x p e r i m e n t a l D e s i g nThe exper iment w as descr ibed as a s tudy o f how accurately peoplecan co mm unicate facial express ions . Par t icipants in the two exper imental

groups we re asked to look at a ser ies of photographs of men and w ome nwith posed facial express ions and to comm unicate the emotional expres-s ion of the person in the photograph as accurately as they could withtheir ow n facial expressions. It wa s exp laine d to participants that theirfacial express ions would be videotaped and then shown to s tudents ina subsequent study w ith the purpose o f finding out how accurately thesestudents could jud ge wh ich emotional expressions the present partici-pants w ere communicat ing.

Par t icipants in the expre ss ion -m irror group we re ins t ructed to emu-late the facial expressions of the people in the photograph as accuratelyas possible. They w ere provided w ith a mirror so they could match theirfacial express ions with those of the peop le in the photograph. Par tici -pants in the express ion group w ere inst ructed to emulate the facialexpress ions of the people in the photograph as accurately as poss ible.They did not have a mirror for observing their own facial express ions .Participants in the control group were instructed to maintain a neutralfacial express ion throughout the s tudy. Their task was to make i t imp oss i-ble for people ob serving their videotaped facial express ions to guesswhich photographs they were observing. Ha lf of the part icipants weregiven photographs of people engaging in pos i tive facial express ions andhalf of the par ticipants were given photographs of people engaging innegative facial expressions.

In addi tion to being randomly ass igned to one of three exper imentalgroups and o ne of two types of facial express ion, par t icipants weredivided into groups of high versus low pr ivate self -consciousness. Thisresul ted in a 2 (par t icipant sex) x 3 ( t reatme nt group) x 2 (pos i t ive vs .negat ive facial express ion) 2 (high vs . low private self -con sciousness)factor ial des ign.

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274 KLEINKE, PETERSON, AND RUTLEDGEIns t ruments

MAACL-R. The Multiple Affec t Adjective Check List Revised(MAACL-R; Zuckerman & Lubin, 1985) was used to assess partici-pants ' affective states. Participants were instructed to complete theMAACL-R according to "how you are feeling at this moment." Thetwo MAACL-R scales chosen for analysis in this study were PositiveAffect and Dysphoria. Participants completed the MAACL-R at thebeginning and at the conclusion of the experiment.Brief Symptom Inventory. The Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) isa brief form of the SCL-90-R (Derogatis, 1975, 1977), measuring ninesymptom dimensions and providing three global indexes of distress. TheGeneral Severity Index was used in our study because it is the mostsensitive of the global indexes (Derogat is & Spencer, 1982). Participantscompleted the BSI at the conclusion of the experiment. The BSI wasincluded as a measure in Experiment 1 because research studies havefound that people's moods have an effect on their self-reported healthand well-being (Croyle & Uretsky, 1987; Salovey & Birnbaum, 1989).It was of interest to determine whether changes in participants' moodsresulting from their facial express ions would influence their reports ofpsychological distress.Self-Consciousness Scale . The Revised Self-Consc iousness Scale(Scheier & Carver, 1985 ) was used to measure participants' private self-consciousness. On the basis of the nine items measuring private self-consciousness (e.g., "I 'm always trying to figure myself out "; I thinkabout myself a lot"; "I 'm constantly thinking about my reasons fordoing things), participants were divided at the median (Mdn = 15 ) intotwo groups: those high and those low in private self-consciousness.

group), or to maintain a neutral facial expression for 15 s (controlgro up) . After 15 s, participants were instructed to put Photograph 1down and to pick up Photograph 2, and so on. There was a 5-s periodbetween each photograph. The tape-recorded instructions guided part ici-pants through all 12 photographs and then told participants to completethe remaining paperwork, which consisted of the MAACL-R (postt est)and the BSI.

When participants had completed the experiment, the experimenterreturned, answered questions, and conducted a brief interview to deter-mine whether participants might have been influenced by experimentaldemands (Orne, 1962). Participants were first asked to describe theirexperiences during the study. They were then questioned about whether.they noticed a connection between their facial expressions and theirfeelings. Finally, participants were prompted to report whether they wereaware that the study was intended to influence their moods. After thepoststudy interview, participants were debri efed and told how they couldobtain results of the study.Demand Character i s t ics and Par t ic ipan t Compl iance

Although some participants expressed awareness of a connection be-tween their facial expressions and feelings, no participant repor tedknowledge of the purpose of the study. Two participants (one man andone woman) apparently found humor in some of the negative facialexpressions in the photographs and they smiled. Data from these partici-pants were deleted, resulting in data from 72 women and 57 men.

Resu l t sPhotographs o f Pos i t ive and Negat ive Facia lExpress ions

The photographs were 3 x 5 in. color prints showing shoulder-to-headviews of men and women with intentionally posed facial expressionsreflecting either positive (12 photographs) or negative (12 photographs)emotions. The positive facial express ions were characterized by smilingand an attempt to look pleased or happy. The negative facial expressionswere characterized by frowning and an attempt to look angry, displeased,or disgusted. The positive versus negative emotions expressed in thephotographs were unambiguous. Twenty judges sorted the photographsinto groups reflecting positive, neutral, or negative emotions. All judgesplaced the 12 positive photographs in the positive group and the 12negative photographs in the negative group. No photographs were placedin the neutral group.Procedure

Participants were seated in a comfortably decorated 10 X 10 ft roomat a small table holding experimental materials and a cassette audiotapeplayer. A video camera on a tripod in full view was oriented to recordparticipants' facial expressions. The exper imenter observed participantson a video monitor in an adjacent room to ensure that they followedexperimental instructions. In the exp res sio n-mirr or condition, a 9 X 12in. mirror was set up on the table so participants could look directly atthemselves.Participants read and signed an informed consent and completed theMAACL-R (pre test) and the Revised Self-Consciousness Scale. Afterthis, they listened to tape-recorded instructions describing the experi-ment and instructing them about what they were expected to do. Theexperimente r then answered questions and left the participants alone inthe room until the experiment was completed. At this time, participantsturned on the tape recorder, which instructed them to pick up the firstphotograph and to match their facial expression to the expression of theperson in the photograph for 15 s (expr ession group) , to match theirexpression for 15 s with the aid of the mirror (expression-mirror

Pos i t ive A f fec tAn analysis of variance (ANOVA) on residual change scores

for MA ACL -R Positive Affect identified a significant TreatmentGroup x Facial Expre ssion interaction, F( 2, 105) = 6.24, p