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@pr&v#%t& & #ns#j& p@r@ @gr@d#c#r @& CNPq, q!# t#m m# @p&%@d& c&m !m@ b&ls@ d# P#sq!%-s@d&r, #m nv#l 1, d#sd# 1996, # @& Pr&f#ss&r P#t#r Wr%gg#rs, ch#f# d@ c@d#%r@ d# M#cn%c@ #str!t!r@l # C&mp!t@c%&n@l d@ !n%v#rs%d@d# d# H@nn&v#r, q!# m# pr&p&rc%&n&! d&%s #stg%&s c&m& Pr&f#ss&r V%s%t@nt# #m 2002. #st@ c@d#%r@ s!c#ss&r@ d@ C@d#%r@ d# @!g!st R%tt#r, c&-nh#c%d& d&s @l!n&s d# R#s%stnc%@ d&s M@t#r%@%s p#l&s s#!s tr@b@lh&s n& sc!l& X%X s&br# & clc!l& d# tr#l%@s. @gr@d#& t@mbm @&s Pr&f#ss&r#s B@lth@s@r N&v@k # W&lfg@ng #hl#rs d@ !n%v#rs%d@d# d# St!ttg@rt, r#sp#ct%v@m#nt# d& %nst%t!t& d# Pr&j#t& d# #str!t!r@s L#v#s # d& %nst%t!t& d# M#cn%c@ #str!t!r@l, q!# m# c&nv%d@r@m p@r@ !m #stg%& d# ps-d&!t&r@d& n#st@ r#n&m@d@ %nst%t!%&. S&! t@mbm gr@t& @&s g&v#rn&s br@s%l#%r& # p&rt!g!s q!#, @tr@vs d@ C@P#S # d& %CCT% tm @p&%@d& @ m%m # @& Pr&f#ss&r Srg%& Prn@ d@ #sc&l@ d# #ng#nh@-r%@ d# S& C@rl&s #m !m c&nvn%& %nt#rn@c%&n@l #ntr# @ !n%v#rs%d@d# d# S& P@!l& # & %nst%-t!t& S!p#r%&r Tcn%c& d@ !n%v#rs%d@d# Tcn%c@ d# L%sb&@. #st# c&nvn%& t#m f%n@nc%@d& #st-g%&s @ d%v#rs&s @l!n&s # pr&f#ss&r#s d# @mb&s &s p@s#s. #m p@rt%c!l@r, @gr@d#& @& Pr&f#ss&r T#%x#%r@ d# Fr#%t@s q!# t& b#m t#m-m# @c&lh%d& #m L%sb&@. N#st#s #stg%&s t%v# @ p@z n#c#s-sr%@ p@r@ pr#p@r@r #st@ r#v%s&.

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1 @s #str!t!r@s d@ #ng#nh@r%@ 9 1 Sl%d&s # #str!t!r@s 9 2 #str!t!r@s c%v%s 10

2.1 N&t@s h%str%c@s 10 2.2 Pr&pr%#d@d#s d&s M@t#r%@%s #str!t!r@%s C%v%s 25 2.3 & Pr&j#t& #str!t!r@l C%v%l 27

3 #str!t!r@s m#cn%c@s 29

2 #l#m#nt&s d# lg#br@ T#ns&r%@l 31 1 #sp@&s V#t&r%@%s 31 2 #sp@&s @f%ns 32 3 D%m#ns& # B@s# 33 4 C&mp&n#nt#s 34 5 C&nv#n& d@ S&m@tr%@ 35 6 #sp@&s V#t&r%@%s #!cl%d%@n&s 36 7 B@s#s &rt&n&rm@%s 39 8 F&rm@s L%n#@r#s 41 9 &p#r@d&r#s V#t&r%@%s 42 10 T#ns&r#s d# S#g!nd@ &rd#m 47 11 F&rm@s B%l%n#@r#s # F&rm@s Q!@drt%c@s 51 12 Pr&d!t& #sc@l@r #ntr# T#ns&r#s d# S#g!nd@ &rd#m 52 13 Pr&d!t& V#t&r%@l 54

13.1 R#l@& d# #!l#r 57 13.2 R#l@& d# N@ns&n 57

14 R&t@#s 57 15 T#ns&r#s S%mtr%c&s 58

15.1 @!t&v@l&r#s # @!t&v#t&r#s 59 15.2 D#c&mp&s%& #sp#ctr@l d# !m t#ns&r s%mtr%c& 61 15.3 Mx%m&s # mn%m&s d@ f&rm@ q!@drt%c@ @ss&c%@d@ 62

16 T#ns&r#s d# T#rc#%r@ &rd#m 64 17 T#ns&r#s d# Q!@rt@ &rd#m 66

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4 C&nv#x%d@d# 76 5 #l#m#nt&s d# @nl%s# t#ns&r%@l 78

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4 C&nv#x%d@d# 131

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11.1 Mx%m& # mn%m& @l&ng@m#nt& 150 11.2 Mx%m@ d%st&r& 150

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3 M&d#l&s Bs%c&s 191 4 M&d#l&s M@t#r%@%s !n%d%m#ns%&n@%s 193

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5 #q!@#s M@t#r%@%s H%p#r#lst%c@s 206 5.1 Cl@ss#s d# M@t#r%@%s H%p#r#lst%c&s 206 5.2 M@t#r%@%s H%p#r#lst%c&s %str&p&s 208 5.3 M@t#r%@%s H%p#r#lst%c&s Tr@nsv#rs@lm#nt# %str&p&s 209 5.4 M@t#r%@%s H%p#r#lst%c&s &rttr&p&s 210

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11 T#&r%@ N&-l%n#@r d@ #l@st%c%d@d# 244 1 %ntr&d!& 244 2 L%n#@r%d@d# G#&mtr%c@ 244

2.1 #l@st%c%d@d# l%n#@r 244 2.2 #l@st%c%d@d# n&-l%n#@r 248 2.3 S&l!& d# Pr&bl#m@s Q!@s#-#stt%c&s 251

3 N&-l%n#@r%d@d# G#&mtr%c@ 252 3.1 Pr&bl#m@ #stt%c& 252 3.2 M@t#r%@l #lst%c& %str&p& 255 3.3 Pr&bl#m@ Q!@s#-#stt%c& 257 3.4 Pr&bl#m@ T@ng#nt# 257 3.5 S&l!& d# Pr&bl#m@s Q!@s#-#stt%c&s 259

12 F&rm!l@#s %nt#gr@%s d@ M#cn%c@ d&s Sl%d&s 263 1 F&rm!l@#s s&b N&-l%n#@r%d@d# G#&mtr%c@ 263

1.1 P&tnc%@ # Tr@b@lh& d&s #sf&r&s #xt#rn&s 263 1.2 P&tnc%@ # Tr@b@lh& d&s #sf&r&s %nt#rn&s 264 1.3 #n#rg%@ C%nt%c@ 265 1.4 T#&r#m@ d@s P&tnc%@s 265 1.5 T#&r#m@ d&s Tr@b@lh&s V%rt!@%s 266 1.6 P&t#nc%@%s 269 1.7 #n#rg%@ P&t#nc%@l # #n#rg%@ M#cn%c@ 270 1.8 F!nc%&n@l m%st& d# H!-W@sh%z! 272 1.9 F!nc%&n@l hbr%d&-m%st& g#r@l 272 1.10 F!nc%&n@%s hbr%d&s d# c&mp@t%b%l%d@d# 273 1.11 T#&r%@s #str!t!r@%s 275

2 F&rm!l@#s s&b L%n#@r%d@d# G#&mtr%c@ 276 2.1 P&tnc%@ # Tr@b@lh& d&s #sf&r&s #xt#rn&s 276 2.2 P&tnc%@ # Tr@b@lh& d&s #sf&r&s %nt#rn&s 277 2.3 #n#rg%@ C%nt%c@ 277 2.4 T#&r#m@ d@s P&tnc%@s 277 2.5 T#&r#m@ d&s Tr@b@lh&s V%rt!@%s 278 2.6 P&t#nc%@%s 281 2.7 #n#rg%@ P&t#nc%@l # #n#rg%@ M#cn%c@ 282 2.8 F!nc%&n@l m%st& d# H!-W@sh%z! 284 2.9 F!nc%&n@l hbr%d&-m%st& g#r@l 285 2.10 F!nc%&n@%s hbr%d&s d# c&mp@t%b%l%d@d# 286 2.11 T#&r#m@ d&s Tr@b@lh&s V%rt!@%s C&mpl#m#nt@r#s 288 2.12 T#&r#m@ d@ #n#rg%@ P&t#nc%@l C&mpl#m#nt@r 289 2.13 F!nc%&n@l m%st& d# H#ll%ng#r-R#%ssn#r 291 2.14 F!nc%&n@l hbr%d&-m%st& c&mpl#m#nt@r 291 2.15 F!nc%&n@%s hbr%d&s d# #q!%lbr%& 292 2.16 F!nc%&n@l Hbr%d& d# Tr#fftz 294 2.17 T#&r%@s #str!t!r@%s s&b l%n#@r%d@d# g#&mtr%c@ 295 2.18 Mt&d& d@ C@rg@ !n%tr%@ p@r@ #str!t!r@s d# B@rr@s 309 2.19 T#&r#m@s d# #n#rg%@ p@r@ #str!t!r@s d# B@rr@s 314

v%%

3 Mt&d&s @pr&x%m@d&s p@r@ Pr&bl#m@s #stt%c&s 325 3.1 G#r@& d# S!b#sp@&s d# @pr&x%m@& 325 3.2 Mt&d& d# R%tz 325 3.3 Mt&d& d&s #l#m#nt&s F%n%t&s 328 3.4 Mt&d& d@ C&l&c@& 329 3.5 Mt&d& d# R%tz-G@l#rk%n # mt&d& d# P#tr&v-G@l#rk%n 330

14 Cr%tr%&s d# R#s%stnc%@ 331 1 %ntr&d!& 331 2 Cl@ss#s d# Cr%tr%&s d# R#s%stnc%@ 332 3 Cr%tr%&s d# R#s%stnc%@ %str&p&s 332

3.1 Cr%tr%& d# R@nk%n# 333 3.2 Cr%tr%& d# Tr#sc@ 333 3.3 Cr%tr%& d# H!b#r-v&n M%s#s 334 3.4 Cr%tr%& d# M&hr-C&!l&mb 335 3.5 Cr%tr%& d# Dr!ck#r-Pr@g#r 336

15 %ntr&d!& T#&r%@ d@ Pl@st%c%d@d# 338 1 #q!@#s C&nst%t!t%v@s #l@st&plst%c@s 338

1.1 M&d#l& !n%@x%@l #lst%c& p#rf#%t@m#nt# plst%c& 338 1.2 M&d#l& m!lt%@x%@l #lst%c& p#rf#%t@m#nt# plst%c& 342

2 & Pr&bl#m@ #stt%c& d@ T#&r%@ d@ Pl@st%c%d@d# 348 2.1 & Pr&bl#m@ Q!@s#-#stt%c& 348 2.2 & Pr&bl#m@ T@ng#nt# d@ T#&r%@ d@ Pl@st%c%d@d# 348

3 @nl%s# L%m%t# p@r@ C@rr#g@m#nt&s Pr&p&rc%&n@%s 349 3.1 C&l@ps& plst%c& s&b c@rr#g@m#nt& pr&p&rc%&n@l 350 3.2 T#&r#m@ #stt%c& 350 3.3 T#&r#m@ C%n#mt%c& 355

16 %ntr&d!& T#&r%@ d@ V%scl@st%c%d@d# 359 1 M&d#l&s !n%@x%@%s 359

1.1 M&d#l& d# trs p@rm#tr&s 359 1.2 F!n& d# fl!nc%@ # d# r#l@x@& 360 1.3 F&rm!l@& %nt#gr@l 363 1.4 #nv#lh#c%m#nt& 365

2 #q!@#s C&nst%t!t%v@s V%sclst%c@s L%n#@r#s 368 2.1 M@t#r%@%s v%sclst%c&s l%n#@r#s %str&p&s 369 2.2 M#t@%s # p&lm#r&s 369 2.3 C&ncr#t& 369

3 T#&r#m@s d# C&rr#sp&ndnc%@ 370 3.1 D#c&mp&s%& d& Pr&bl#m@ #stt%c& 370 3.2 #str!t!r@s d# C&ncr#t& 370

17 %ntr&d!& T#&r%@ d@ #st@b%l%d@d# 376 1 #st@b%l%d@d# d# Sl%d&s C&ns#rv@t%v&s 376

1.1 C&nf%g!r@& d# #q!%lbr%& #stv#l 376 1.2 C&nf%g!r@& d# #q!%lbr%& Crt%c@ 378

2 @nl%s# d# #!l#r 379 3 M&d#l&s !n%d%m#ns%&n@%s 381

v%%%

9

@s #str!t!r@s d@

#ng#nh@r%@

1 Sl%d&s # #str!t!r@s C&m& #st# t#xt& tr@t@ d# sl%d&s # d# #str!t!r@s, n#c#ssr%& pr%m#%r@m#nt# %ntr&d!z%r pr#l%m%n@r-m#nt# @lg!ns c&nc#%t&s # d#f%n%#s. Sl%d&s1, #m &p&s%& @&s fl!%d&s, s& c&nj!nt&s c&n#x&s d# m@t#r%@l q!# p&ss!#m f&rm@ d#f%n%d@ q!@nd& n& s& s!bm#t%d&s @& d# n#nh!m #sf&r& #xt#r-n&.

Sl%d&s n@ M#cn%c@ d&s M#%&s C&ntn!&s s& c&ns%d#r@d&s !m c&nj!nt& c&ntn!& d# p&nt&s m@t#-r%@%s q!# p&d#m s#r %d#nt%f%c@d&s p#l@ p&s%& q!# &c!p@m n& #sp@& fs%c& tr%d%m#ns%&n@l. Sl%d&s s& c&ns%d#r@d&s rg%d&s q!@nd& @ d%stnc%@ r#l@t%v@ #ntr# q!@%sq!#r d&%s d# s#!s p&nt&s m@t#r%@%s n& s# @lt#r@ n& t#mp&. C@s& c&ntrr%& s& ch@m@d&s d#f&rmv#%s.

Sl%d&s s& c&ns%d#r@d&s !m@ #str!t!r@ q!@nd& tm @ f!n& d# tr@nsm%t%r &! r#s%st%r @& d# #s-f&r&s #xt#rn&s. P@r@ %ss& n#c#ssr%& q!# t#nh@m t@mbm m@nt#nh@m !m@ f&rm@ d#f%n%d@ q!@nd& s!bm#t%d&s @& d&s #sf&r&s #xt#rn&s p@r@ &s q!@%s d#v@m s#r f!nc%&n@%s. !m@ #str!t!r@ p&r-t@nt& !m sl%d& c&m !m@ f!n& m#cn%c@. #str!t!r@s p&d#m s#r pr&j#t@d@s # c&nstr!d@s p@r@ q!# t#nh@m @ f!n& d#s#j@d@. #st# & &bj#t%v& pr%nc%p@l d@ #ng#nh@r%@ #str!t!r@l. #x%st#m #str!t!r@s #m t&d@s @s c&nstr!#s c%v%s, @ss%m c&m& n@s mq!%n@s, s#j@m #l@s g!%nd@st#s, @!t&mv#%s, @v%-#s, f&g!#t#s, n@v%&s &! s!bm@r%n&s. #x%st#m #str!t!r@s n@t!r@%s, c&m& @ f&rm@d@ p#l& #sq!#l#t& # msc!l&s d&s c&rp&s d&s m@mf#r&s.

@ M#cn%c@ d&s M#%&s C&ntn!&s @ p@rt# d@ fs%c@ q!# tr@t@ d# sl%d&s # fl!%d&s, q!@nd& s& c&n-s%d#r@d&s !m c&nj!nt& c&ntn!& d# p&nt&s m@t#r%@%s q!# p&d#m s#r %d#nt%f%c@d&s p#l@ p&s%& q!# &c!p@m n& #sp@& fs%c& tr%d%m#ns%&n@l. M#cn%c@ d&s Sl%d&s @ p@rt# d@ Fs%c@ q!# tr@t@ t@nt& d&s sl%d&s rg%d&s c&m& d&s d#f&rmv#%s. @ M#cn%c@ d&s Sl%d&s tr@t@ t@mbm d# s%st#m@s f&r-m@d&s p&r sl%d&s, c&m& !m@ mq!%n@. @ M#cn%c@ d&s Sl%d&s D#f&rmv#%s @ p@rt# d@ M#cn%-c@ d&s M#%&s C&ntn!&s q!# tr@t@ @p#n@s d&s sl%d&s d#f&rmv#%s. @ M#cn%c@ d@s #str!t!r@s @ p@rt# d@ M#cn%c@ d&s Sl%d&s D#f&rmv#%s q!# tr@t@ #sp#c%f%c@m#nt# d@s #str!t!r@s.

Q!@nd& d#f%n%#s s& f#%t@s @& l&ng& d& t#xt&, c&l&c@-s# & c&nc#%t& d#f%n%d& #m %tl%c&.

10

r@ H!m@n@. J h@v%@ c&nstr!#s #m @lv#n@r%@ n@s m@%s pr%sc@s #r@s. N& %nc%&, @s p#dr@s #r@m @p#-n@s #mp%lh@d@s, m@s l&g& s# d#s#nv&lv#! @ tcn%c@ d& @lv#n#r &! @lv@n#l, &! s#j@, d# t@lh@r @s p#-dr@s, d@nd&-lh#s !m m#lh&r #nc@%x#. & #x#mpl& s!pr#m& d#st@ tcn%c@ t@lv#z p&ss@ s#r v%st& n@ F&rt@l#z@ d# S@qsh!y@m@n (F%g!r@ 1.1), n@s pr&x%m%d@d#s d# C!zc&, n@ q!@l &s %nc@s l#v@nt@r@m p#dr@s n@t!r@%s d# d%v#rs@s t&n#l@d@s, t@lh@d@s # p&l%d@s, c&m #nc@%x#s p#rf#%t&s # s#m @rg@m@ss@, c!j@ #x#c!& @t h&j# !m #n%gm@ p#rm@n#c#. & @ss#nt@m#nt& d@s p#dr@s c&m & @!xl%& d# @rg@-m@ss@, %st& , d# !m@ m%st!r@ d# g!@, @r#%@ # @lg!m m@t#r%@l l%g@nt# c&m& b@rr& &! c@l t@mbm q!@s# t& @nt%g&.

F%g!r@ 1.1: F&rt@l#z@ d# S@qsh!y@m@n N& p@ss@d&, @ m@%&r%@ d@s c&b#rt!r@s # t#lh@d&s #r@ r#@l%z@d@ c&m @ @j!d@ d# #str!t!r@s d# m@d#%r@, !m@ v#z q!# &s v&s q!# p&d#m s#r v#nc%d&s c&m @ @lv#n@r%@ #r@m b@st@nt# l%m%t@d&s. !m #x#m-pl& d#st@ l%m%t@& s& &s tm!l&s #x#c!t@d&s p#l&s p&v&s n#&lt%c&s d@ Br#t@nh@, n@s pr&x%m%d@d#s d@ c%d@d# d# C@rn@c. N& #nt@nt&, & H&m#m d#sd# c#d& t#nt&! d#s#nv&lv#r tcn%c@s p@r@ s!p#r@r #st@ l%m%t@&. !m@ d#l@s, ch@m@d@ d# f@ls& @rc& &! @bb@d@, c&ns%st%@ #m #mp%lh@r p#dr@s #m b@-l@n& @t s# f#ch@r#m n& t&p& d@ c&nstr!&. & #x#mpl& m@%s c&nh#c%d& d#st@ tcn%c@ @ Cm@r@ d& T#s&!r& d# @tr#! #m M%c#n@s n& P#l#p&n#s&, #rg!%d@ #st%m@t%v@m#nt# #m 1325 @C.

F%g!r@ 1.2: @rc&s # @bb@d@s r&m@n&s #m @lv#n@r%@

@) P&nt d! G@rd p#rt& d# Nm#s; b) P@nt#& #m R&m@ (118-125)

11

n#%r&s (h&j#, p#dr#%r&s) @t%ng%! !m mx%m&, t@nt& n& @pr&v#%t@m#nt& d&s m@t#r%@%s c&m& n@ f&rm@ @rq!%t#tn%c@, n@ c&nstr!& d@s c@t#dr@%s gt%c@s #!r&p%@s, s#j@m #l@s #m p#dr@ n@t!r@l c&m& @s fr@nc#s@s # @s d& c#ntr&-s!l d@ @l#m@nh@, @ss%m c&m& @s #x#c!t@d@s #m t%j&l&s c#rm%c&s d& n&rt# d@ @l#m@nh@.

F%g!r@ 1.3: Cp!l@ d@ C@t#dr@l d# Fl&r#n@ @ c&nstr!& #m @lv#n@r%@ @%nd@ h&j# m!%t& %mp&rt@nt#, pr%nc%p@lm#nt# #m &br@s r#s%d#nc%@%s. N& #nt@nt&, #l@ p#rd#! p@rt# d# s!@ s%gn%f%cnc%@ @ps & d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& d# n&v&s m@t#r%@%s d# c&ns-tr!& c&m& & @& # & c&ncr#t&. @ b@%x@ r#s%stnc%@ tr@& d@ @lv#n@r%@ l%m%t@ & s#! !s& @ p@r#d#s # m!r&s s!j#%t&s @ p&!c@ s&l%c%t@& d# fl#x&, &! @& !s& d# @rc&s # cp!l@s. #d%fc%&s r#s%d#nc%@%s d# vr%&s p@v%m#nt&s c&m p@r#d#s #str!t!r@%s d# @lv#n@r%@, @rm@d@s &! n&, c&mpl#m#nt@d&s p&r #l#m#nt&s #str!t!r@%s d# c&ncr#t& @rm@d& c&m& l@j#s # tr@v@m#nt&s, p&d#m s#r !m@ &p& #m p@-s#s #m d#s#nv&lv%m#nt&, n&s q!@%s @ m& d# &br@ @%nd@ r#l@t%v@m#nt# b@r@t@. J #m p@s#s c&m nv#%s s@l@r%@%s m@%s @lt&s, @ c&nstr!& #m @lv#n@r%@ c&nc#ntr@-s# #m &br@s r#s%d#nc%@%s d# p#q!#n& p&rt#.

#x%st#m @lg!ns d#s#nv&lv%m#nt&s m&d#rn&s #m m@t#r%@%s p@r@ &br@s d# @lv#n@r%@, pr%nc%p@lm#nt# c&m & d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& d# bl&c&s l#v#s, %ncl!s%v# d# m@t#r%@%s @rt%f%c%@%s d#r%v@d&s d& p#trl#&, # d# bl&c&s d# @lt& d#s#mp#nh&.

2.1.2 #str!t!r@s d# m@d#%r@ @ #x#c!& @rt#s@n@l d# #str!t!r@s d# v%g@s d# m@d#%r@ d#s#nv&lv#!-s# d#sd# c#d& t@nt& n@ Ch%n@ #, d#p&%s, n@ %d@d# Md%@ #!r&p%@, s#j@ #m c&b#rt!r@s, s#j@ #m p&nt#s, c&nf&rm# s# p&d#m v#r n@s F%g!r@ 1.4@ # n@ F%g!r@ 1.5. N& #nt@nt&, @ c&nstr!& d# #str!t!r@s d# m@d#%r@ p@ss&! @ s#r !m @s-s!nt& pr&pr%@m#nt# d@ #ng#nh@r%@ s&m#nt# @ps @ R#v&l!& %nd!str%@l. #m p@rt%c!l@r, n&s #st@d&s

F%l%pp& Br!n#l#sch% (1377-1446).

12

F%g!r@ 1.4: #str!t!r@s #m m@d#%r@

@) %gr#j@ #m S@@lf#ld (sc.X%%%); b) B@ln#r%& d# B@d Drrh#%m (1985-1987)

F%g!r@ 1.5: P&nt# #m m@d#%r@ s&br# & R%& R#n& #m Sch@ffh@!s#n

Pr&j#t& c&m 2 v&s d# 60 m d# J. !. Gr!b#nm@nn (1756) !m@ %n&v@& r#c#nt# n@s #str!t!r@s d# m@d#%r@ s& @s v%g@s d# m@d#%r@ c&l@d@ q!# p&ss%b%l%t@m @ c&nstr!& d# v%g@s c!rv@s d# gr@nd# v& (F%g!r@ 1.4b # F%g!r@ 1.6). C&ntr%b!%!, p@r@ %ss&, t@mbm & d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& d# d%v#rs&s t%p&s d# l%g@#s m#tl%c@s q!# m!%t& s%mpl%f%c@r@m #st@s c&nstr!-#s # lh#s d#r@m !m c@rt#r d# #str!t!r@s m#tl%c@s.

13

F%g!r@ 1.6: G%ns%& d# #sp&rt#s d& P@rq!# d@s N@#s, L%sb&@

2.1.3 #str!t!r@s m#tl%c@s @ !t%l%z@& d& f#rr& # d& @& #m #str!t!r@s d#p#nd#! m!%t& d& d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& d@ s%d#r!rg%@ d!-r@nt# @ R#v&l!& %nd!str%@l n@ %ngl@t#rr@. @lg!ns m@rc&s d#st# d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& s& @ pr&d!& d# f#rr& g!s@ #m @lt&-f&rn&s p&r v&lt@ d# 1735 p&r @br@h@m D@rby %% # @ d#sc&b#rt@ d& pr&c#ss& d# f@br%c@& d& @& p#l& pr&c#ss& p!ddl%ng p&r H#nry C&rt #m 1784. C&m & d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& d@s pr%m#%r@s l@m%n@#s n@ pr%m#%r@ m#t@d# d& sc!l& X%X, pd# & @& s#r f%n@lm#nt# tr@nsf&rm@d& d# f&rm@ #c&nm%c@ #m p#rf%s @d#q!@d&s @& !s& #str!t!r@l. @ pr&d!& #c&nm%c@ d& @& #m gr@nd#s q!@nt%d@d#s t&rn&!-s# p&ssv#l s&m#nt# @ps @ d#sc&b#rt@ #m 1855 d& pr&c#ss& d@ g@rr@f@ d# H#nry B#ss#m#r # @ %nv#n& #m 1867 d& f&rn& d# S%#m#ns-M@rt%n.

F%g!r@ 1.7: P&nt# d# f#rr& f!nd%d& #m C&@lbr&&kd@l#/S#v#rn @ pr%m#%r@ p&nt# d# f#rr& (F%g!r@ 1.7) f&% c&nstr!d@ #m C&@lbr&&kd@l#/S#v#rn p&r @br@h@m D@rby %%% # J&hn W%lk%ns&n n&s @n&s 1773-1779 c&m 30,6 m d# v& # p&d# @%nd@ s#r v%s%t@d@ h&j#. N& @n& 1794 s!rg%! @ pr%m#%r@ p&nt# d# f#rr& n@ @l#m@nh@ c&m 13 m d# v& (F%g!r@ 1.8). N& pr%ncp%& d& sc!l& X%X %nm#r@s p&nt#s f&r@m c&nstr!d@s #m t&d@ @ #!r&p@ c&m @ m#sm@ tcn%c@. @s pr%m#%-r@s p&nt#s @d&t@r@m @s f&rm@s tr@d%c%&n@%s d@s p&nt#s #m @lv#n@r%@, s#nd& c&nstr!d@s #m @rc&, !m@ v#z q!# @%nd@ #r@m #x#c!t@d@s d# f&rm@ @rt#s@n@l, s#m f!nd@m#nt&s t#r%c&s. &s #l#m#nt&s d# f#r-

14

F%g!r@ 1.8: P&nt# d# f#rr& f!nd%d& #m L@@s@n, S%ls%@ @lm d@s p&nt#s #m @rc&, @ p@rt%r d# 1825, c&m @ c&nstr!& @c#l#r@d@ d@s #str@d@s d# f#rr&, f&r@m #x#c!t@d@s %nm#r@s p&nt#s #m tr#l%@ #m d%v#rs&s #sq!#m@s. #st# s%st#m@ #str!t!r@l @t%ng%! s#! @p&g#! c&m @ p&nt# s&br# & F%rth &f F&rth (F%g!r@ 1.9), prx%m@ @ #d%mb!rg&, c&m & v& pr%nc%p@l d# 521 m, c&nstr!d@ #m 1883-1890.

F%g!r@ 1.9: P&nt# s&br# & F%rth &f F&rth, #scc%@

P@r@l#l@m#nt# @& d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& d@ t#cn&l&g%@ d& @&, @ c&mpr##ns& d# f&rm@ r@c%&n@l d& c&m-p&rt@m#nt& d@s #str!t!r@s f&% !m f@t&r %mp&rt@ntss%m& p@r@ & rp%d& d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& d@ #ng#nh@-r%@ d# #str!t!r@s n& sc!l& X%X. @ p@rt%r d# m#@d&s d& sc!l& X%X, @s #str!t!r@s p@ss@m @ s#r#m c&nc#b%d@s n& m@%s @rt#s@n@lm#nt# # s!@s f&rm@s n& m@%s d#t#rm%n@d@s p&r pr&p&r#s, m@s s%m p&r s!@ c@p@c%d@d# p&rt@nt# c@lc!l@d@ @ p@rt%r d# f!nd@m#nt&s c%#ntf%c&s # d# r#s!lt@d&s d# #ns@%&s. B@s#@d&s n@ M#cn%c@, # c&m & @!xl%& d# r#s!lt@d&s #xp#r%m#nt@%s, H&&k# (1635-1703), B#l%d&r (1693-1761), B#rn&!ll% (1700-1782), C&!l&mb (1736-1806) # &!tr&s h@v%@m #st@b#l#c%d& &s f!n-d@m#nt&s d@ #stt%c@. N@v%#r (1735-1806) &rd#n&! #m 1821 #st# c&nh#c%m#nt&, r#s!m%nd&-& # c&mpl#m#nt@nd&-& #m s!@s pr#l##s n@ "c&l# d#s P&nts #t Ch@!ss#s", tr@nsf&rm@nd&-& #m !m c&nh#c%m#nt& prt%c&, &!, c&m& h&j# d#n&m%n@m&s, #m t#cn&l&g%@. #m 1858 @p@r#c%@ !m@ &!tr@ &br@ %mp&rt@ntss%m@, d#n&m%n@d@ M@n!@l &f @ppl%#d M#ch@n%cs d& #ng#nh#%r& #sc&cs W%ll%@m R@nk%n# (1820-1872). C&ntr%b!%#s %mp&rt@nt#s v%#r@m t@mbm d& @l#m& K@rl C!lm@nn (1821-

15

g#nh#%r&s @l#m#s c&m& #ng#ss#r (18481931), M&hr (1835-1918), Mll#r-Br#sl@! (1851-1925) # Whl#r (1819-1914), l#v@nd& f&rm@& d@ d%sc%pl%n@ d#n&m%n@d@ n@ p&c@ d# R#s%stnc%@ d&s M@t#r%@%s. @ pr#m%ss@ bs%c@ d@ R#s%stnc%@ d&s M@t#r%@%s #r@ q!# @ d#t#rm%n@& d@s t#ns#s n@s #str!t!r@s #r@ s!f%c%#nt# p@r@ !m b&m d%m#ns%&n@m#nt&.

@ "c&l# d#s P&nts #t Ch@!ss#s" h@v%@ s%d& f!nd@d@ #m 1747 p@r@ @ f&rm@& c%#ntf%c@ d&s &f%c%-@%s d& #xrc%t& fr@ncs, q!# t@mbm s# &c!p@v@m d@ c&nstr!& p#l& #st@d& fr@ncs d# p&nt#s # &br@s #nt#rr@d@s. C@b# @q!% c&m#nt@r q!#, d#sd# & %mpr%& R&m@n& @t & sc!l& XV%%%, @ pr&f%ss& d# #ng#nh#%r& #st@v@ l%g@d@ @t%v%d@d# m%l%t@r, s#nd& m!%t@s v#z#s c&ns%d#r@d@ !m@ d@s @rm@s d& #xrc%t& # d@ m@r%nh@. @ c&nstr!&, h&j# d%t@ c%v%l, #r@ t&c@d@ b@s%c@m#nt# p&r @rt#s&s # @rq!%t#-t&s, c@b#nd& @&s #ng#nh#%r&s @ t@r#f@ d# c&nstr!%r f&rt%f%c@#s # p&nt#s. t@mbm %nt#r#ss@nt# c&m#nt@r q!# @ p@l@vr@ #ng#nh#%r& v#m d& l@t%m %ng#n%!m, @tr@vs d& fr@ncs @nt%g& %ng#n%#!-r#, s%gn%f%c@nd& f@z#r c&m & #spr%t&, &! s#j@, f@z#r c&m r@z& # h@b%l%d@d#, #nq!@nt& q!# @ p@l@vr@ @rq!%t#t& v#m d& gr#g& @rch%t#kt&n, s%gn%f%c@nd& &p#rr%&-ch#f#, &! m#str#-d#-&br@s.

#m 1775, f!nd@d@ @ "c&l# P&lyt#chn%q!# d# P@r%s, @ q!@l, #mb&r@ s#j@ !m@ #sc&l@ m%l%t@r, p@ss@ t@mbm @ f&rm@r #ng#nh#%r&s C%v%s, t&rn@nd&-s# p@r@d%gm@ p@r@ d%v#rs@s #sc&l@s tcn%c@s #m t&d& & m!nd&. L&g& @ps, #m Tr&y, N&v@ Y&rk, f!nd@d@ @ pr%m#%r@ #sc&l@ P&l%tcn%c@ d& c&nt%n#nt# @m#r%c@n&. @ p@rt%r d& %nc%& d& sc!l& X%X, #l@s s# #sp@lh@m p&r t&d@ @ #!r&p@.

@ pr%m#%r@ #sc&l@ d# #ng#nh@r%@ br@s%l#%r@ f!nd@d@ n& R%& d# J@n#%r& #m 1810, p&r D. J&& V%, c&m & n&m# d# @c@d#m%@ R#@l M%l%t@r. D#l@ d#sm#mbr@d@, #m 1874, @ f@m&s@ #sc&l@ P&l%tcn%c@ d& R%& d# J@n#%r&, @lm@ m@t#r d@s #sc&l@s d# #ng#nh@r%@ d& Br@s%l # q!# f&% %nstr!m#nt& %mp&r-t@ntss%m& p@r@ m%t%g@r & b@ch@r#l%sm& v%g#nt# @t #nt& n&s c#ntr&s d# p&d#r br@s%l#%r&s. #l@ f&% %nsp%r@& p@r@ @ f!nd@& d@ #sc&l@ d# M%n@s d# &!r& Pr#t& #m 1876, d@s #sc&l@s P&l%tcn%c@s d@ B@h%@ (1887) # d# S& P@!l& (1893), d& M@ck#nz%# C&ll#g# #m S& P@!l& (1896) # d@s #sc&l@s d# #ng#nh@r%@ d& R#c%f# (1896) # d# P&rt& @l#gr# (1897). @d&t@nd& d%v#rs&s n&m#s n& d#c&rr#r d& sc!l& XX, @c@b&! p&r s#r %nc&rp&r@d@ !n%v#rs%d@d# F#d#r@l d& R%& d# J@n#%r&.

@ pr%m#%r@ #sc&l@ P&l%tcn%c@ @l#m (P&lyt#chn%k!m) f!nd@d@ #m 1825 #m K@rlsr!h#, t#nd& t@m-bm @ c&-%rm d# P@r%s c&m& %nsp%r@&. D@ m#sm@ p&c@ @ #sc&l@ P&l%tcn%c@ d# Z!r%q!#, n@ S!@, h&j# c&nh#c%d@ c&m& #TH (#%dg#nss%sch# T#chn%sch# H&chsch!l# Zr%ch). #st@s d!@s s#rv%r@m d# m&d#l& @ Fr@nc%sc& d# P@!l@ S&!z@ n@ f!nd@& d@ #sc&l@ P&l%tcn%c@ d# S& P@!l& #m 1893, & q!# m!%t& c&ntr%b!%! p@r@ @ %nd!str%@l%z@& d@ c%d@d#. #m 1934, @ #sc&l@ P&l%tcn%c@ d# S& P@!l& f&% %nc&rp&r@d@ r#cm cr%@d@ !n%v#rs%d@d# d# S& P@!l&.

N@ @l#m@nh@, @s #sc&l@s P&l%tcn%c@s m@%s %mp&rt@nt#s, c&m& @ d# St!ttg@rt, p@ss@r@m @ t#r @ d#-n&m%n@& d# #sc&l@s Tcn%c@s S!p#r%&r#s (TH), d#%x@nd& & t#rm& #sc&l@ p&l%tcn%c@ p@r@ #sc&l@s tcn%c@s d# m#n&r %mp&rtnc%@. @ p@rt%r d@ dc@d@ d# 50, m!%t@s d@s #sc&l@s Tcn%c@s S!p#r%&r#s p@ss@r@m @ s#r d#n&m%n@d@s !n%v#rs%d@d#s Tcn%c@s &!, s%mpl#sm#nt#, !n%v#rs%d@d#s.

@. R%tt#r, #l#m#nt@r# Th#&r%# !nd B#r#chn!ng #%s#rn#r D@ch-!nd Brck#n-K&nstr!kt%&n#n, Rmpl#r, H@nn&v#r,

1873.

16

F%g!r@ 1.10: P&nt#s Pns#%s d& sc!l& X%X

@) P&nt# s&br# & #str#%t& d# M#n@% (1816); b) Br&&kl%n Br%dg# #m N&v@ Y&rk (1883)

D@s #str!t!r@s m#tl%c@s, @s p&nt#s s!sp#ns@s d#st@c@m-s# p&r v#nc#r &s m@%&r#s v&s. C&nh#c%d@s h m@%s d# 2000 @n&s n@ Ch%n@, !t%l%z@nd& c&rd@s, #l@s s# d#s#nv&lv#r@m @ps @ R#v&l!& %nd!s-tr%@l @ p@rt%r d# #str!t!r@s s!sp#ns@s p&r c&rr#nt#s f#%t@s d# #l#m#nt&s f&rj@d&s, p@ss@r@m @ s#r #x#-c!t@d@s #m c@d#%@s d# b@rr@s, c&m& @ P&nt# H#rcl%& L!z d# Fl&r%@np&l%s #, t#rm%n@r@m, n&s d%@s d# h&j# p&r s#r#m q!@s# q!# #xcl!s%v@m#nt# #x#c!t@d@s c&m & @!xl%& d# c@b&s d# @&. & p@s q!# m@%s c&ntr%b!%! p@r@ & d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& d# p&nt#s s!sp#ns@s p&r c@b&s, &! s%mpl#sm#nt#, p&nt#s pns#%s, f&r@m &s #st@d&s !n%d&s. N@ F%g!r@ 1.10 v-s# d!@s n&tv#%s &br@s d& sc!l& X%X: @ p&nt# #m c&rr#nt#s s&br# & #str#%t& d# M#n@%, %ngl@t#rr@, d# Th&m@s T#lf&rd, c&nstr!d@ d# 1816 @ 1826 # @ m@r@v%lh&s@ Br&&kl%n Br%dg# #m N&v@ Y&rk, d# J. @. & W. @. Rbl%ng, c&nstr!d@ d# 1870 @ 1883.

F%g!r@ 1.11: G&ld#n G@t# Br%dg# #m S& Fr@nc%sc&

N@ F%g!r@ 1.11 #st @ f@m&s@ G&ld#n G@t# #m S& Fr@nc%sc&, q!# d#t#v# br#v#m#nt# & r#c&rd# d# m@%&r v& pr%nc%p@l #m p&nt#s. N@ F%g!r@ 1.12 #st& @s d!@s d@s m@%&r#s p&nt#s pns#%s j c&nstr!-d@s: @ p&nt# s&br# @ #ntr@d@ d& p&rt& d# N&v@Y&rk, ch@m@d@ d# V#rr@z@n& N@rr&ws, t#rm%n@d@ #m 1964, # @ P&nt# @k@sh%-K@%ky& n& J@p&, d# q!@s# 2.000 m d# v& c#ntr@l, & r#c&rd# m!nd%@l, c&ns-tr!d@ d# 1993 @ 1998. N@ F%g!r@ 1.13, v-s# @ P&nt# 25 d# @br%l s&br# & T#j& #m L%sb&@, %n@!g!r@-d@ #m 1972, # q!#, #m 1998 r#c#b#! c@b&s @d%c%&n@%s p@r@ p#rm%t%r @ p@ss@g#m d& tr#m m#tr&p&l%-t@n& s&b & t@b!l#%r& r&d&v%r%&.

17

F%g!r@ 1.12: P&nt#s Pns#%s d& sc!l& XX

V#rr@z@n& N@rr&ws, N&v@ Y&rk (1964); b) P&nt# @k@sh%-K@%ky& (1990) H&j#, pl@n#j@-s# @ s!p#r@& d&s #str#%t&s d# M#ss%n@ (3 km) # d# G%br@lt@r (11 km) p&r m#%& d# p&nt#s q!# c&mb%n@m c@b&s #st@%@d&s c&m c@b&s pns#%s.

F%g!r@ 1.13: P&nt# 25 d# @br%l s&br# & T#j& #m L%sb&@ (1972) N@ t@b#l@ @ s#g!%r #xp#m-s# @lg!ns d@d&s s&br# p&nt#s s!sp#ns@s q!# p&d#m s#r d# %nt#r#ss#.

d@t@ P&nt# s!sp#ns@ V& pr%nc%p@l (m) 1796 Pr%m#%r@ p&nt# s!sp#ns@ m&d#rn@ (c&rr#nt#s) d# J. F%nl#y 21

1816-26 P&nt# d# c&rr#nt#s n& #str#%t& d# M#n@% d# Th. T#lf&rd 127 1816 Pr%m#%r@ p&nt# pns%l n&s #!@ 124

1832-34 Gr@nd P&nt d# Fr%b!rg&, S!@, d# J. Ch@l#y 273 1870-83 Br&&klyn Br%dg# #m N&v@ %&rq!# d# J. @. & W. @. Rbl%ng 486 1929-32 G#&rg# W@sh%ngt&n Br%dg# #m N&v@ %&rq!# d# &. H. @mm@nn 1067 1933-35 G&ld#n G@t# Br%dg# #m S& Fr@nc%sc& d# J. B. Str@!ss 1280

1964 V#rr@z@n& N@rr&ws #m N&v@ Y&rk 1660 1993-98 P&nt# @k@sh%-K@%ky& n& J@p& 1990

pl@n#j@d@ P&nt# s&br# & #str#%t& d# M#ss%n@ 3300 pl@n#j@d@ P&nt# s&br# & #str#%t& d# G%br@lt@r 3 x 3500

18

F%g!r@ 1.14: P&nt# d# Str&ms!nd D#sd# 1950, v&s md%&s @ m&d#r@d@m#nt# gr@nd#s p@ss@r@m @ s#r v#nc%d&s p&r p&nt#s s!sp#ns@s p&r c@b&s r#t&s (p&nt#s #st@%@d@s). #m 1955 @ pr%m#%r@ p&nt# m&d#rn@ d#st# t%p& f&% #x#c!t@d@ n@ S!c%@ (F%g!r@ 1.14) p#l& #m%n#nt# #ng#nh#%r& @l#m& D%sch%ng#r (1887-1953). #m 1957 f&% #x#-c!t@d@ @ p&nt# #st@%@d@ s&br# & R#n&, @& n&rt# d# Dss#ld&rf, c&m !m v& pr%nc%p@l d# 260 m. #m 1995 f&% #rg!%d@ @ P&nt# d@ N&rm@nd%@ n& H@vr# c&m 865 m d# v& pr%nc%p@l. @ pr%m#%r@ p&nt# #st@%@d@ br@s%l#%r@ #x#c!t@d@ #m 2000 s&br# & R%& P%nh#%r&s, #m S& P@!l&, # c&ntm !m@ #st@& d& tr#m m#tr&p&l%t@n&.

@s pr%m#%r@s p&nt#s #m v%g@ d# @lm@ ch#%@, @ p&nt# d# C&nw@y (122 m), m&str@d@ n@ F%g!r@ 1.15@ # @ P&nt# Br%t@nn%@ (140 m), f&r@m c&mpl#t@d@s p&r W. F@%rb@%rn # R. St#ph#ns&n #m 1847 # 1850, r#sp#ct%v@m#nt#. #l@s f&r@m p#rc!ss&r@s d@s p&nt#s d# s#& c#l!l@r q!# s# t&rn@r@m, n@s lt%m@s dc@d@s, & t%p& p@dr& d# p&nt#s d# @& # d# c&ncr#t& pr&t#nd%d& (F%g!r@ 1.15b) #m t&d& & m!nd&.

F%g!r@ 1.15: P&nt#s #m v%g@ c@%x&

@) P&nt# d# C&nw@y (1847); b) P&nt# d# Tw%nb#rg, !str%@, (1987) M!%t@s p&nt#s #xpr#ss%v@s, vr%@s d#l@s s!sp#ns@s, r!r@m p&r r!pt!r@ frg%l, p&r f@d%g@ d&s m@t#r%-@%s, p&r fl@mb@g#m d# #l#m#nt&s #str!t!r@%s %ns!f%c%#nt#m#nt# #nr%j#c%d&s, p&r r#ss&nnc%@ c@!s@d@ p#l@ m@rch@ d# s&ld@d&s, p&r %nst@b%l%d@d# @#r&d%nm%c@ (F%g!r@ 1.16) &! p&r &!tr&s f#nm#n&s s!b#st%m@d&s. #st#s fr@c@ss&s l#v@r@m %nv@r%@v#lm#nt# @ !m@ %nt#ns%f%c@& d@ @t%v%d@d# d# p#sq!%-s@ #, p&st#r%&rm#nt#, @ !m m@%&r d#s#nv&lv%m#nt& t#cn&lg%c&.

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