ignacio pesqueira: sonoran caudillo

37
Journal of the Southwest Ignacio Pesqueira: Sonoran Caudillo Author(s): Rudolph F. Acuña Source: Arizona and the West, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Summer, 1970), pp. 139-172 Published by: Journal of the Southwest Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40167587 . Accessed: 28/09/2013 03:06 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . Journal of the Southwest is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Arizona and the West. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 142.51.1.212 on Sat, 28 Sep 2013 03:06:46 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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Page 1: Ignacio Pesqueira: Sonoran Caudillo

Journal of the Southwest

Ignacio Pesqueira: Sonoran CaudilloAuthor(s): Rudolph F. AcuñaSource: Arizona and the West, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Summer, 1970), pp. 139-172Published by: Journal of the SouthwestStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40167587 .

Accessed: 28/09/2013 03:06

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

Journal of the Southwest is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Arizona andthe West.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 142.51.1.212 on Sat, 28 Sep 2013 03:06:46 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 2: Ignacio Pesqueira: Sonoran Caudillo

IGNACIO PESQUEIRA:

SONORAN CAUDILLO

by

RUDOLPH F. ACURA

The author received his doctorate at the University of Southern California and

currently is Head of the Department of Mexican-American Studies at San Fernando

Valley State College, Northridge, California.

During the middle decades of the nineteenth century, many of the Mexican states were ruled by caudillos or political strongmen. The

inability of the central government to control the states permitted the rise of these leaders, who exacted obedience through the use of force and defied all interference by higher authorities. Among the most ruthless and autonomous of the Mexican caudillos were the nortenos - Santiago Vidaurri, who ruled the states of Nuevo Leon and Coahuila; Luis Terra-

zas, the cattle baron of Chihuahua who frequently functioned as chief executive of that state; and Ignacio Pesqueira, probably the least known of the three, who was the major political figure in Sonora from 1856 to

1876. Pesqueira was a product of the frontier, and in many ways his

reign was the most complete of all.

Ignacio Pesqueira was born on December 1 6, 1 820, in the northern frontier city of Arizpe. This once majestic town had been the capital of the state, but had declined in importance with the onslaught of the

Apaches from the north and the retreat of settlers into the interior. His

grandfather and father had been born in Arizpe, and his father, Ignacio Pesqueira, had been a captain in the Spanish army. Both his father and his mother, Petra Garcia Tato, were of the accepted class, but did not

belong to the older and wealthier families of the state. However, Petra

[139]

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Page 3: Ignacio Pesqueira: Sonoran Caudillo

1 40 ARIZONA and the WEST

Garcia Tato was from one of the most distinguished families of the time and a relative of General Pedro Garcia Conde, who in 1 849-5 1 headed the Mexican delegation on the United States-Mexican Boundary Commission. The Pesqueiras were in the rising frontier class who were advancing through the military and threatened the domination of the older oligarchy.1

Education was practically non-existent in northern Sonora when Ignacio was a youth. Fortunately, Francisco Lopez, his godfather and uncle, was especially fond of him and sponsored his education in Spain. Proud of his Spanish heritage, Lopez had refused to renounce his citizen- ship and had been expelled from Mexico. Young Pesqueira arrived in

Spain when he was eight and entered a Catholic school in Seville. At age fourteen he traveled to Paris and studied for a business career. He was exposed to the liberal ideas of that day, and was alleged to have taken part in the antimonarchist movements that began in Spain in 1833 with the death of Fernando VII. Pesqueira may also have become attracted to the ideas of the French Revolution - and even joined the Masonic Order. In 1838 he sailed from Spain, arriving in Sonora early the fol- lowing year.

In Arizpe Pesqueira found employment in a mercantile house, and became interested in raising tobacco. In that northern district, both agri- culture and commerce had been seriously crippled by the ravages of Apache raiders from north of the border. Like many ambitious young men, Pesqueira joined the local district militia, where his magnetic personality and formal education accelerated his advancement. A man of medium height, Ignacio had dark brown hair and eyes to match, and a ruddy complexion which was marred by noticeable smallpox marks. He was jovial, a hearty drinker, and quickly developed a loyal following. One observer said Pesqueira wore an expression denoting craftiness,

1Ram6n Corral, Obras Histdricas, Resena Historica del Estado de Sonora, 1856-1877- Biografia de Jose Maria Leyva Cajeme; Las Razas Indigenas de Sonora (Hermosillo: Biblio- teca Sonorense de Geografia e Historia, 1959), 25-26; Eduardo W. Villa, Galeria de Sonor- enses lllustres (Hermosillo: Impulsora de Artes Graficas, 1948), 137-38; Hector Pesqueira, "Rectificando Datos de la Vida del Gral. Ignacio Pesqueira," El Impartial, January 16, 1952; Ramiro de Garza, "Don Ignacio Pesqueira <>Es Un Heroe?" in Manuel H. Ramirez (ed.), Revista Directorio Sonora (Navajoa, Sonora: n.p., 1957), 19-21; Rudolph F. Acuiia, "The Times of Ignacio Pesqueira; Sonora, Mexico, 1856-1876," (Ph. D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1968). Little is known of the early life of Ignacio Pesqueira. In 1915 the invading army of Pancho Villa burned the Pesqueira ancestral home at Bacanuchi, and the family papers were destroyed.

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Page 4: Ignacio Pesqueira: Sonoran Caudillo

IGNACIO PESQUEIRA 1 4 1

and was good natured with a complete lack of scruples or piety. His

speech was marked with "sibilant utterances peculiar to many western Mexicans." Arizona pioneer Charles D. Poston described Pesqueira as "an educated savage, without property or position" who "naturally coveted his neighbor's goods."2

Trained in the art of Indian warfare by the veteran Colonel Rafael

Buelna, Pesqueira by 1845 was a captain of a company of forty men, which patrolled the Rio Sonora Valley from Arizpe south to Baviacori. He also was made subprefect of the District of Moctezuma. When the United States declared war on Mexico, he enlisted in the state militia in order to defend his native state. As the expected invasion did not mate-

rialize, Pesqueira spent these years campaigning against the Apaches.3 On January 11, 1851, Ignacio Pesqueira was catapulted to state-

wide prominence. At Pozo Hediondo in the District of Moctezuma, he

intercepted an Apache raiding party that was driving a large herd of stolen animals. Although outnumbered three hundred to fifty, the young officer bravely attacked the Indians. When his horse was shot from under him, his companions gave him up for lost and retreated. Several

days later Pesqueira appeared in Arizpe on foot, and the town gave him a hero's welcome. He was recognized publicly for his bravery by Sonoran Governor Jose de Aguilar, and appointed to the command of the urban battalion at Arizpe. This year also saw the beginning of his

political career. His neighbors in the District of Arizpe elected him to a

two-year term as a deputy in the state legislature. In September of 1853 he returned to Arizpe, and the following year was promoted to major in the state militia and appointed Prefect and Military Commander of the District of Ures.4

2Garza, "Don Ignacio Pesqueira," in Ramirez (ed.), Revista Directorio Sonora, 20-21; Fran- cisco R. Almada, Diccionario de Historia, Geografia y Biografia Sonorenses (Chihuahua: Ruiz Sandoval, 1952), 574. Yuma Arizona Sentinel, March 2, 1879; Charles D. Poston, "Building a State in Apache Land," Overland Monthly, XXIV (August 1894), 204-205. 3 Interview with Fernando Pesqueira, University of Sonora, Hermosillo, August 22, 1966; Corral, Obras Historicas, 26; Villa, Galena de Sonorenses, 138; Almada, Diccionario, 574.

Pesqueira studied painting in Paris and was considered a good amateur. Most of the subjects of his oils were saints - truly a strange subject for one who admired Guiseppe Garibaldi and

reportedly wore the red shirt symbolic of his movement.

4 Almada, Diccionario, 574-75; Villa, Galeria de Sonorenses, 138; Francisco Sosa, Las Estatutas de la Reforma, Noticias Biogrdpcas de los Personajes en Ellas Revresentados (2nd ed., Mexico: Oficina Tipografia de la Secretarfa de Fomento, 1900), 7; Eduardo W. Villa, Historia del Estado de Sonora (2nd ed., Hermosillo: Editorial Sonora, 1951), 212.

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1 42 ARIZONA and the WEST

Placed in a position of prominence, Pesqueira soon became involved in the political currents of the day. Since the nation's independ- ence in 1 82 1, Sonora had suffered from continuing neglect. Chaotic conditions in Mexico City prevented the central government from con-

tributing to the support or control of its northwestern frontier. Sonora's

geographical isolation limited immigration into the state. During this

period, the Indians remained Sonora's major threat. From the north and the south, respectively, the Apaches and the Yaquis and Mayos carried on a war of extermination. With frightening rapidity they hit the outlying towns and ranches, causing many settlers to flee into the interior. Further complicating the situation was the gold rush of 1 849 which caused a depopulation of Sonora, and saw Argonauts bound for California repeatedly plundering the northern towns.5

State authorities were unable to cope with the situation. Internally, the santanismo of Manuel Maria Gandara tore the state apart. Born of

Spanish parents in 1 80 1 in San Juan de Aigame, Sonora, Gandara came to power in 1837, championed the Centralist cause, and throughout the 1 840s feuded with Federalist Jose Urrea. He married Dolores Aguilar and became the owner of the haciendas of Bamuri and Topahui near Hermosillo, and grew very wealthy. Poston said Gandara was "a sedate and dignified man with a large fortune, who was polite and hospitable to travelers/' In 1 849 Gandara's brother-in-law, Jose de Aguilar, became

governor of Sonora. Aguilar pleaded with the central government for aid, emphasizing that the state was in grave dangqr of economic and

political collapse, but his entreaties fell on deaf ears.6

Pesqueira's opportunity for advancement came with the pronounce- ment of the Plan of Ayulta in 1 854 against the Mexican dictator, Antonio

Lopez de Santa Anna. A wave of liberalism swept Mexico, and by the

following year the Aguilaristas joined the revolt and founded the Sonoran Liberal Party. Although his liberal leanings were known,

5 Villa, Historia de Sonora, 190; Wilfred H. Calcott, Liberalism in Mexico, 1857-1929 (Stanford U. Press, 1931), vii; see also Wilfred H. Calcott, Church and State in Mexico, 1822-1857 (Duke U. Press, 1926). 6Almada, Diccionario, 288-89; Robert C. Stevens, "Mexico's Forgotten Frontier: A History of Sonora, 1821-1846," (Ph. D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1963); Villa, Historia de Sonora, 223; Ernesto de la Torre Villar, "Las Notas Sobre Sonora, del Capitan Guillet (1864-1866)/' YAN (Ciencias Anthropol6gicos), I (1953), 46-59; Poston, "Building a State in Apache Land," Overland Monthly, XXIV, 204-205, 211. Gandara died in Hermosillo in 1878. Diccionario Porrua de Historia Biografica y Geografia de Mexico (2nd ed., Mexico: Editorial Porrua, S.A., 1965), 581.

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IGNAC10 PESQUEIRA 143

Major Pesqueira probably enlisted in the movement because of his

obligations to Aguilar and the hope of benefitting from a change in the status quo, rather than because of any intellectual commitment. Santa Anna remained in control of Mexico until the summer of 1855, then fled the country. By the end of the year, Ignacio Comonfort, a former customs collector at Acapulco, was president. During the late summer, Sonoran Governor Pedro Espejo, an associate of Aguilar, nominated

Pesqueira for the position of federal deputy inspector of the military colonies.7

Although neither Aguilar nor Gandara had openly supported the liberal revolt, both lobbied in Mexico City for state appointments. At

first, the Gandaristas were favored, and on October 17, 1855, Manuel Gandara was appointed governor and federal commander in Sonora.

However, early the following year the administration in Mexico City changed its mind and appointed Aguilar governor and Espejo the federal commander. Peeved at this action, Gandara withheld the announcement of the appointments until February of 1856, and then refused to deliver the commissions. The situation in Sonora was so tense, he said, that a

change in administrations would lead to civil war. He would make a

"personal sacrifice" and remain in office. Gandara then arbitrarily expelled Espejo from Sonora, claiming that he had been a supporter of Santa Anna. He was now both governor and commanding general. Aguilar protested these actions, but did not risk open warfare.8

Finally, in March Aguilar and Gandara met at the latter's hacienda at Topahui and agreed to a compromise. Aguilar could become governor but Gandara would retain the military command. Gandara, however,

7 Manuel Maria Gandara, Manifestacidn Que Hace el Gefe Supremo de la Rcpuhlica el Ciudadadano Manuel Maria Gandara, en la Que Espresa Las Causas que le Obligaron a Salir del Estado De Sonora (Mexico: Imprenta de Jos£ A. Godoy, 1857), 6. Villa, Galena de Sonorenses, 138, says Pesqueira entered the regular army; but Almada, Diccionario, 574, states his commission was not approved but that he functioned in the position although another person was appointed. Until May of 1856, Pesqueira signed his correspondence as

adjutant inspector. 8Laureano Calvo Berber, "Nociones de Historia de Sonora (M&rico: Librerfa de Manuel Porrua, S.A., 1958), 187, 189; Ures La Vox de Sonora, October 19, 1855; Manuel Maria Gandara, "Estatuto Organico," Plan Politico Proclamado (Ures), October 22, 1855; Villa, Historia de Sonora, 241; Gandara, Circular to the District Prefects, Ures, February 25, 1856, in La Voz de Sonora, February 29, 1856; Jose" de Aguilar to Gdndara, Ures, February 20, 1856, Archivo Hist6rico del Estado de Sonora [AHES], Hermosillo, Gaveta 12-5, 213.1; Aguilar to the Citizens of Sonora, March 18, 1856, in La Voz de Sonora, March 21, 1856; Gdndara, Manifestacidn, 9; G£ndara, Circular to the People, February 19, 1856, in La Voz de Sonora, February 22, 1856.

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vacillated about assuming his post, refused to cooperate with Aguilar, and retired to his hacienda. On April 2 Pesqueira at the capital at Ures announced that conditions on the frontier were bad and the state needed a man who would use a firm hand. He accused Gandara of negligence and asserted that henceforth he would recognize only the orders of the

governor. He urged Aguilar to assume command of the army. Gandara

appointed Colonel Juan Espiiidola the commander, but Pesqueira refused to recognize him and Espindola placed his sword at Aguilar s

disposal.9 When Aguilar announced he would take command of the army,

Gandara's partisans reacted instantaneously. On April 16 Francisco Borunda, head of the garrison at Hermosillo, revolted and with others

organized a force to march on Ures. Pesqueira quickly marshalled the local forces at the capital and prepared to fight. The collision, however, was averted when a dispatch from Mexico City instructed Gandara to take the post of commanding general. Gandara entered the capital un-

opposed, and immediately relieved Pesqueira from his command as

military inspector. This drew angry recriminations from the deposed officer; the demotion, however, actually gave him an opportunity to assume a more prominent role. Governor Aguilar on April 22 had appointed him President of the Executive Council of the legislature, and now added the position of colonel inspector of the national guard. As head of the Council, Pesqueira was next in succession to the governorship - a fact that irritated Gandara.10

Gandara connived to improve his position. Believing that Pesqueira was seeking support on the frontier, he withdrew troops from the north- ern presidios and sent them to Guaymas. He then enlisted a following among the Indians in the Yaqui Valley. With the frontier garrisons weakened, the Apaches began raiding the northern towns at every opportunity. An example of their ferocity was the devastating attack on Chinapa. When soldiers entered the town, they found the streets

9Ignacio Pesqueira to the Governor of Sonora, Ures, April 2, 1856, in La Vox de Sonora, April 4, 1856; Pesqueira and others to the Governor of Sonora, Ures, April 2, 1856; in La Vox de Sonora, April 4, 1856.

10Calvo Berber, Nociones de Historia, 189; Pesqueira to Gdndara, Arizpe, May 26, 1856, in Villa, Historia de Sonora, 242, 244; La Voz de Sonora, April 24, May 30, 1856.

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1GNAC10 PESQUEIRA 145

deserted and the corpses of men, women and children scattered every- where.11

On July 15, 1856, a group of Gandaristas under Manuel "El

Chapo" Davila rode into Ures, seized Aguilar and designated Ramon

Encinas, a puppet, the governor. According to the constitution, Pesqueira was now governor. The officer moved quickly. The following day, at

Banamichi, he sent a circular to the district prefects saying he had assumed the governorship. He publically castigated Gandara, pledging to defend the state constitution, and put down the rebellion. Soon after-

wards, the Gandaristas released Aguilar, who instantly sanctioned Pes-

queira's actions and encouraged him to lead the struggle against the rebels.12

Pesqueira was aware that he faced insurmountable odds. Gandara had controlled Sonora for twenty years and had won the support of the influential rancheros and the interior Indian tribes. Widespread discon- tent with Gandara, however, had consolidated the rising merchant class, who were ready to contribute men and money generously in putting down the revolt. The southern city of Alamos was especially interested in Pesqueira's stand, and rushed four hundred men to aid him. Bartolome Almada was dispatched to Mexico City to explain Pesqueira's actions to President Conmonfort. Meanwhile, Gandara proved to be a paper tiger. Organizing his forces, Pesqueira in August captured Ures, and turning toward Hermosillo defeated the Gandaristas on the Plains of Dolores near Misa. Manuel Gandara fled to Chihuahua. Pesqueira actively pur- sued the Yaqui and Mayo auxiliaries, and finally in early 1857 defeated

Jesus Gandara, brother of Manuel, at Onavas. This ended the revolt.13

n"Gacetilla de la Capital," in La Voz de Sonora, May 16, 1856; Gandara, Manifestacidn, 10, said he removed the troops to relieve tensions. Cirilo Ramirez, "Abando de la Frontera," in La Voz de Sonora, June 27, 1856; Villa, Historia de Sonora, 242; La Voz de Sonora, May 30, 1856. 12 Aguilar to District Prefects, Topahui, July 25, 1856, in La Voz de Sonora, August 9, 1856; Villa, Historia de Sonora, 246; Corral, Obras Hisioricas, 26-28. 13 "La Cuidad de Alamos," in La Voz de Sonora, October 3, 1856; "El Sr. Yanez en MazatUn," in La Voz de Sonora, January 2, 1857; Fernando Pesqueira (ed.), "Documentos para la Historia de Sonora," Segunda Serie, Tomo III, typewritten copy in the Biblioteca y Museo de Sonora, Hermosillo; Villa, Historia de Sonora, 246; Corral, Obras Historicas, 27; "D. Manuel Gdndara," in La Voz de Sonora, September 19, 1856.

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Pesqueira's position was tenuous. He offered to deliver the state back to Jose de Aguilar, but the latter refused to accept it because of ill health. Pesqueira, as acting governor, realized that he had to consolidate the divergent forces within the state. The Gandaristas still enjoyed the

support of the wealthy classes and clericals and could count on

support from the Yaquis and Mayos. Fortunately, at this juncture, a

foreign intrusion united the state behind Ignacio Pesqueira.14 Sonora had been the object of filibusters from the United States

on previous occasions. The infamous William Walker had conspired to invade Sonora, and there had been unfortunate incidents with French adventurers. Added to this were the recent Mexican-American War of 1 846 and the Gadsden Purchase, which had taken large sections of the Sonoran northern frontier. Because of these actions suspicion was imme-

diately aroused when in late 1856 news came that a large colonizing expedition was leaving California under Henry A. Crabb, a prominent politician. Crabb had been a candidate of the Know Nothing Party for the California Senate and was a leader of the pro-slavery faction in that state. With the California press declaring that the venture was more than just a colonizing effort, Sonorans naturally became alarmed. The Ures La Voz de Sonora and other newspapers openly condemned the

enterprise.15 The previous spring, Crabb, his wife Filomena, and his brother-in-

law Agustin Ainza, a former resident of Sonora, had landed at Guaymas, and visited the major cities in the state. They met many of the influential

people, and according to the American Consul, Juan A. Robinson, sowed seeds of discontent. Crabb and Ainza contacted Governor Aguilar and Pesqueira during their visit, and probably discussed the possibility of

furnishing aid in their impending conflict with Gandara. Certainly, in California at this time, there were many Sonorans who desired to return

14 Hubert H. Bancroft, North Mexican States and Texas, 1801-1889 (2 vols., San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft and Company, 1889), II, 695. 15 Robert H. Forbes, Crabh's Filibustering Expedition into Sonora, 1857 (Tucson: Arizona Silhouettes, 1952). Crabb was born in Nashville, Tennessee, and was a close friend of William Walker. A lawyer by profession, he migrated to Stockton, California, where as a Whig he was elected to the assembly and the state senate. San Francisco Evening Bulletin (California), March 2, 13, 18, 20, 1857. Rufus K. Wyllys, "Henry A. Crabb - A Tragedy of the Sonoran Frontier," Pacific Historical Review, IX (June 1940), 184. C. Ramirez, "D. Agustin Ainza v Su Projecto," in La Voz de Sonora, May 9, July 4, August 15, and September issues, 1856; "Filibusteros Americanos," in La Voz de Sonora, March 6, 1857.

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1GNAC10 PESQUEIRA 147

to their homeland. Crabb was still in Sonora as late as May, when the relations between Aguilar and Gandara became strained.16

The actions of Agustin Ainza soon dispelled all doubts as to Crabb's motives. On June 7 Ainza left Ures for Altar in northern Sonora to meet the colonists coming from California, and in the frontier towns of

Magdalena, Imuris, and San Ignacio, he spread seditious propaganda. He told the residents that his intentions were to establish a republic composed of Sinaloa, Baja California, and Sonora, which probably would be sold to the United States. He sought to enlist influential resi- dents to his scheme. Sonoran officials quickly arrested Ainza, but through a strange sequence of events he was not brought to trial. The public reaction to Ainza made it evident that it would have been suicide for

Pesqueira to allow Crabb to enter the state. Furthermore, by January of

1857, he already had driven Manuel Gandara from Sonora and did not need Crabb.17

On January 21, 1857, Crabb left San Francisco, marched into

Arizona, and reached the Sonoran border in late March with a party of about one hundred volunteers, divided into three military companies. In the group were many prominent Californians, some of whom were former members of the state legislature. Nine hundred additional colo- nists reportedly were following by sea. At the border village of Sonoita, Prefect Jose Maria Redondo stopped Crabb and warned him against entering Sonora. Crabb sent the prefect an insolent letter, stating that this was not an army, but a peaceful colonizing expedition which had been invited into the state by "important persons/' He would continue with or without Redondo's permission. The norteamericanos resolutely crossed the border.18

Governor Pesqueira viewed Crabb's activities with alarm. He

16 Forbes, CraWs Filihustering Expedition, 7; Juan A. Robinson, "Statement of Don Juan Robinson," M-M 375, Reel 97, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Aguilar to Military Commandant of Sinaloa, Ures, July 12, 1856, AHES, Gaveta 3-2, 233.3/6; La Voz de Sonora, May 9, July 4,1856. 17 La Voz de Sonora, July 11, September 5, 1856; Letter from Jesus Garcia Morales, July 7, 1856, Hermosillo, in AHES, Gaveta 3-2, 233.3/6; Calvo Berber, Nodones de Historia, 192-96; Pesqueira to the People of Sonora, March 30, 1857, in AHES. 18 A list of the members is in Forbes, Crabb's Filibustering Expedition, 45-46. San Francisco Evening Bulletin, January 22, 1857. Henry A. Crabb to Jos£ Redondo, March 26, 1857, Sonoyta, in Villa, Historia de Sonora, 249, 251. The facts imply that Pesqueira had made a deal with Crabb before his overthrow of Gdndara, but when the victory came so unexpectedly, he called off the assistance. Crabb knew about the change of events.

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activated the national guard and urged his fellow citizens to resist the invasion. On March 30 he declared:

Free Sonorans: To arms all! The Hour has sounded. . . . prepare for the

bloody struggle. . . . Show no mercy, no generous sentiments toward these hounds. Let them die like wild beats Sonorans, let our conciliation become sincere in a common hatred of this accursed horde of pirates, destitute of country, religion, or honor

Sonorans responded to Pesqueira's summons. Factions which had previ- ously been separated now united, crying "Viva Mexico! Death to the Filibusters!" When Crabb and sixty-nine men reached Caborca on April 1 , Sonoran troops attacked them, and they took refuge in a church. After seven days of bitter fighting, the Americans surrendered. Mexican authorities tried and executed all of the survivors with the exception of

sixteen-year-old Charles Evans. The Mexicans then severed Crabb's head from his shoulders, placed it in a jar of alcohol, and exhibited it to the crowd. The bodies of the intruders were left unburied for the hogs and coyotes to gnaw on, then were dumped in a trench.19

The massacre of Crabb's party caused a wave of excitement in the United States. However, many Americans pointed out that Sonorans had suffered greatly from the encroachments and depredations of fili- busters, scalp hunters and Argonauts, and no action was taken. Sonorans took pride in the repulsion of the yanqui invader, and praised Ignacio Pesqueira for his vigorous measures to crush the filibusters. He was the man of action whom they had been seeking to lead them.

Sonora appeared at last to be at peace. Pesqueira returned the gov- ernership to Jose de Aguilar, and retired to his hacienda at Las Delicias in the District of Arizpe. Aguilar called for elections, and as expected, Pesqueira was a candidate for governor. He received an overwhelming mandate, and on August 28, 1 857, was inaugurated governor. The peace, however, was shortlived. The new Mexican Constitution proclaimed in the spring of 1857 quickly split the nation into liberal and conservative camps. Conservatives protested its anti-clerical provisions, as well as other democratic reforms, and threatened a revolution if it were imple- mented. Liberals, on the other hand, were determined to enforce the

i»Bancroft, North Mexican States, II, 694-95; Villa, Uistoria de Sonora, 251, 253, 257; Forbes, Crabb' s Filibustering Expedition, 15, 24-31; Calvo Berber, Nociones de Historia, 199-204.

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Ignacio Pesqueira (1828-1886) was governor of Sonora during most of the period from 1856-1876. - Arizona Pio- neers' Historical Society, Tucson.

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Page 13: Ignacio Pesqueira: Sonoran Caudillo

Manuel M. Gandara clashed with Pesqueira for control of Sonora for sev- eral decades. - Laureano Calvo Berber, Nociones de Historia de Sonora.

Jose de Aguilar was governor of Sonora and encouraged Pesqueira's rise to power. - Calvo Berber, Nociones.

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new document to its fullest. In Sonora, Pesqueira pledged to uphold the new constitution.20

Soon after Pesqueira's election, the Gandaristas, supported by the

pro-clerical elements, rebelled again. Support was easily found among the Indians, as they were fanatically religious and loyal to Manuel Gdn- dara. Some one hundred and fifty natives at the pueblos of Onavas and T6nichi went on the warpath, calling for the return of G&ndara. Pes-

queira crushed the uprising in November, and forced the hostiles back into the Yaqui Valley. However, Jesus Gandara, the brother of Manuel,

urged the Yaquis to fight, and in December his army overran the state forces at La Pitahaya, triggering a widespread uprising across the state.21

At this juncture word arrived of the Plan of Tacubaya, which con- demned the Constitution of 1857 and called for a dictatorship. This conservative reaction launched the so-called War of the Reform in Mexico. President Comonfort and Supreme Court Justice Benito Juarez were forced to flee Mexico City in January of 1858 when it fell to the conservative forces. Comonfort went into exile and Juarez became the

president of the liberal government. Jesus Gandara and his followers

pronounced for the plan. Pesqueira met the threat squarely, driving the Gandaristas from the field at El Bajadero in early January and on Feb-

ruary 24 decisively defeated the enemy at El Saucito near the pueblo of Bacanora. In this battle Jesus Gandara was killed. Pesqueira then sent Colonel Jesus Garcia Morales into the Yaqui Valley to break the Indian

resistance, which he did successfully by May. In the years ahead Pes-

queira would often rely heavily on Garcia Morales. He was a good military strategist and a veteran campaigner, but did not possess the char- ismatic personality and optimism to inspire as did Pesqueira.22

The War of the Reform spread to Sonora's sister state of Sinaloa in 1858. In Sinaloa Pesqueira encouraged Placido Vega to resist the Conservative forces under Generals Pedro Espejo and Jose Maria Yaiiez, who were then in control, and promised to bring an army into that state.

Many Sonorans objected, contending that such a move would take him out of the state, and increase the possibility of more civil strife at home.

20Corral, Obras Histdricas, 28-29; Almada, Diccionario, 19-20. 21 Francisco P. Troncoso, Las Guerras Con las Tribus Yaqui y Mayo de Estado de Sonora (Mexico: Tipografia del Departmento de Estado Mayor, 1905), 52; La Voz de Sonora, October 21, November 4, December 18, 1857.

22Troncoso, Las Tribus Yaqui y Mayo, 52; La Voz de Sonora, January 1, March 5, 1858.

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Pesqueira knew conditions in Sonora would not permit his leaving at that time, so in October he sent Garcia Morales with four hundred men to Sinaloa. He also sent arms and supplies. He then conferred extra-

ordinary powers on the district prefects, to enable them to act in emer-

gencies, and marched for Alamos.23 In Alamos Pesqueira sought to repair political fences. He arrived

in late December and found the city in a festive mood. "They received him with triumphal arches, flowers, parades, speeches, banquets and balls, and seated him under a canopy with white clouds/' Carlotta Miles wrote in Almada of Alamos. Pesqueira was serenaded by a band playing "La Indita," which became the marching song for his soldiers. Poor and rich alike turned out to pay tribute to the conqueror of Gandara and Crabb. The governor enjoyed the welcome immensely. He entered into the local celebration, dancing and mingling freely with the townspople. For the attention he received in Alamos, Pesqueira remarked: jOjala no se hubiera nunca borrado del corazon entusiasta de aquellos habitantes!" (I hope that those inhabitants will never lose their enthusiasm.)24

The leading citizens of Alamos honored their governor, but openly questioned the prudence of his leading an army into Sinaloa. The money and manpower needed could be better spent in Sonora. Alamos also would have to bear a major share of the cost of the Sinaloan venture. Pesqueira's deputy governor, Miguel Urrea - a wealthy Alameiio - led the opposition and refused to assume the duties of governor in Pes- queira's absence.25

Despite objections from Alamos and other cities in Sonora, Pes- queira assumed the title of provisional governor of Sinaloa and moved his army across the state line. He arrived on January 4, 1859, in the outskirts of Mazatlan with five hundred men. Liberals enthusiastically greeted him and conferred on him the title of military commander of the armies of Sinaloa, Sonora and Baja California. Although his army

23Calvo Berber, Nodones de Historia, 209, 211; Corral, Ohras Histdricas, 31-32; Carlotta Miles, Almada of Alamos - The Diary of Don Bartoleme (Tucson: Arizona Silhouettes, 1962), 21-22. 24 Miles, Almada of Alamos, 20-21; Corral, Ohras Historicos, 32. 25 Pesqueira (ed.), "Documentos," Tercera Serie, Tomo IX. At the time Pesqueira was leaving for Sinaloa, Sonorans on the frontier were engaged in a mortal conflict with the Apaches. Charles P. Stone, acting consul, Guaymas, December 23, 1858, Dispatches from United States Consuls in Guaymas, General Records of the Department of State [GRDS], Record Group 59, National Archives. Stone condemned Pesqueira's Sinaloan venture as capricious.

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grew to 2,000 men and twenty pieces of artillery, Pesqueira remained cautious. General Yaiiez, an experienced soldier who had commanded the national forces in Sonora, headed the Conservative army, and was Manuel Gandara's compadre. Pesqueira attacked Mazatl&n, but was thrown back. He retreated to Cosala to regroup and consolidate his

forces, for in his own words, he lacked "the scarce elements of war/'26

Pesqueira drilled his Sonoran army for several months. With Liberal reinforcements arriving from Chihuahua, he then laid siege to Mazatlan in April and took the city. Conservative generals Espejo, Yanez, and Manuel Gandara escaped on the British frigate Alarm.

Ignacio Pesqueira installed Placido Vega as governor of Sinaloa. This

victory made him one of the foremost defenders of the Constitution of

1857, and 3,000 volunteers rallied to his banner. He immediately gave thought to marching south to Jalisco to aid the Liberal cause nationally; however, conditions in Sonora forced him to abandon his plans.

During his absence, the Gandaristas had stirred Juan and Refugio Tanori and the Opata Indians to proclaim Manuel Gandara the governor. On June 1 5 Pesqueira landed in Guaymas, and hurried quickly to Her- mosillo to disperse the rebels there. He declared an all-out war on the Indians on the southern and northern frontiers. Colonel Garcia Morales marched into the river valleys of the Yaquis and Mayos to campaign against them, and by December of 1 859 had quieted the resistance. Steps also were taken to contain the Apaches on the northern frontier, but there was little success.27

Pesqueira next turned his attention to a troublesome problem created by the American engineer, Charles P. Stone. For over a year he and Stone had haggled over a contract made by the central government with the Jecker-Torre Company on August 14, 1856. This agreement, which had been entered into without the consent of Sonoran officials,

provided that in recompense for surveying and mapping Sonora's public lands within three years, the Jecker-Torre Company would receive title to one-third of the lands it surveyed, with an option to buy another third at market price if the Mexican government elected to sell. The central

26Eustaquio Buelna, Apuntes Para la Historia de Sinaloa, 1821-1882 (Mexico: Departmento Editorial de la Secretaria de Educacion, 1924), 53; Corral, Obras Histdricas, 32-34; Procla- mation by Pesqueira, Mazatlan, May 19, 1859, in AHES, Gaveta 14-4, 336; Ures La Estrella de Occidente (Sonora), July 8, 1859.

27La Estrella de Occidente, July 15, 1859; Corral, Obras Histdricas, 35.

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government guaranteed that the state would comply. The Jecker-Torre Company then assigned the contract to a group of San Francisco capital- ists, who in consideration for conducting the survey would receive fifty per cent of the Jecker-Torre deal. Charles Stone, an ex-army officer, was commissioned by the San Francisco group to conduct the survey.28

Three parties departed from San Francisco for Sonora under Stone, and in March of 1 858 began surveying the northernmost lands. A month later the group reached Guaymas, and prepared to extend the survey into the interior. Confident that the state officials would cooperate, Stone

formally requested permission from Pesqueira to proceed with the survey in accordance with the terms of the Jecker contract. Pesqueira replied that he did not have the authority to allow the survey as there was doubt as to the legality of the agreement. He particuarly did not think that state lands should be included in the survey. The Sonoran legislature seconded the governor. Tempers flared and by fall a confrontation seemed immi- nent. It was at this point that Pesqueira elected to enter the Sinaloa troubles.29

Stone's intentions were clear. In a letter on December 23, 1858, to Secretary of State Lewis Cass, he stated:

I have carefully studied the country and people for eight months past, in which time I have had an excellent opportunity of gaining information from my position in the Survey of Public lands, and I feel confident that the only means of saving this state from a return to almost barbarism will be found to be its annexation to the United States. In this opinion I only agree with the most intelligent inhabitants of the state, both native and foreign.30

28 Caleb Cushing, Contract of the Mexican Government for the Survey of the Public Lands in the State of Sonora (Washington, n.p., 1860), 2-5; L. W. Inge to Robert McLane, August 15, 1859, Dispatches from United States Ministers to Mexico, 1823-1906, XXIV, GRDS, RG 59; Francisco F. de la Maza, Cddigo de Colonization y Terrenos Baldios de la Refublica, anos de 1451 a 1892 (4 vols., Mexico: Oficina Topografia de la Secretaria de Fomento, 1893), I, 641. 29 J. E. Calhoun and Associates, San Francisco, to J. B. Jecker, April 5, 1859, Dispatches from Mexico; Stone to Pesqueira, Guaymas, April 15, 1858; Pesqueira to Stone, Guaymas, April 15, 1858, in La Voz de Sonora, April 30, 1858; La Vox de Sonora, May 7, 1858. Born in Massachusetts in 1824, Stone graduated from the Military Academy, rose to captain during the Mexican War, and in 1856 resigned from the army to work as a surveyor. In 1861 he re-entered the army as colonel, Fourteenth Infantry, was accused of incompetence during the Battle of Ball's Bluff and imprisoned. Reinstated in August of 1862, he resigned his commis- sion two years later, and served as a general in the Egyptian Army. Stone died in New York in 1887. Constance W. Altshuler (ed.), Latest From Arizona: The Hesperian Letters, 1859- 1861 (Tucson: Arizona Pioneers' Historical Society, 1969), 280-81. 30 Stone to Lewis Cass, Guaymas, December 23, 1858, Dispatches from United States Consuls in Guaymas, Mexico, 1832-1896, Vols. I-IV, GRDS, RG 59.

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Conditions remained tense throughout the winter of 1858, with Stone

ignoring Pesqueira. On May 18, 1859, prior to his return to Sonora, Pesqueira ordered

Stone to leave the state. The American consul, Robert Rose, vigorously protested this expulsion, but Stone decided to leave for Fort Buchanan in Arizona. This, however, did not end the incident. Stone's benefactors continued to lobby both in Washington and in Mexico City. The Mexican officials played all sides. They agreed with Jecker agents, and

gave lip service to the Americans, promising to study the problem.31 In October the San Francisco group tried again. The San Francisco

Herald on October 2 stated that Washington officials had instructed

Captain William H. Porter, commanding the United States sloop-of-war St. Mary's, to proceed to Guaymas and demand an explanation regarding Stone's expulsion. Three days later the St. Mary's arrived in Guaymas and anchored; before the month ended Pesqueira rode into the city with

eighty dragoons. On November 7 Porter sent a note to Pesqueira demand-

ing that he comply with the contract and allow Stone to survey the lands in question. When the governor refused, Porter rattled his saber,

reminding Pesqueira that the Pacific Squadron was powerful and vir-

tually sovereign in the Pacific. About this time Captain Richard S. Ewell arrived from Fort Buchanan in Arizona, with orders to investigate the friction between Porter and Sonoran officials.32

Porter continued his aggressive manner. With Pesqueira refusing to discuss the matter further, he prepared to land one hundred men and two pieces of artillery, and threatened to blockade the harbor. These threats touched off anti- American demonstrations, and American officials were manhandled and their flag trampled and ripped. Pesqueira remained calm and apologized for the disorder. When Porter threatened to shell Guaymas, Pesqueira announced that if one shot was fired into the

town, he would not be responsible for American life or property in Sonora. Knowing the intensity of anti-American feeling, Porter sailed

31 Edward Conner to Cass, MazatMn, Mexico, May 26, 1859, Dispatches from United States Consuls in Mazatlan, Mexico, GRDS, RG 59, points out that Stone was causing tension because of his arrogant manner.

32Farrelly Alden to William H. Porter, October 25, 1859, Dispatches from Guaymas; Porter to Pesqueira, Guaymas, November 7, 1859, in La Estrella de Occidente, November 18, 1859.

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away from Guaymas and Ewell returned to Arizona. The St. Marys crisis had passed.33

Sonoran officials continued to be uneasy. In July came rumors that United States Minister Robert McLane was negotiating with Melchor

Ocampo, the Foreign Minister of the Liberal government, whereby Sonora would be opened to American investors. On August 19, 1859, La Estrella de Occidente in Ures ran an editorial, lamenting the situation:

Poor Sonora! All the elements of misfortune conspire to ruin you; everywhere you hear terrifying threats against your political existence. The mother country has been a stepmother to you, and in the chief executive power of the nation you have witnessed only merchants preoccupied with selling the national territory piece by piece. Where will your eyes turn to, poor Sonora?

The fear of American economic penetration soon vanished. When the

McLane-Ocampo Treaty was submitted to the United States Senate in December, it was branded a measure to strengthen Southern interests and rejected.34

Pesqueira's strong stand against foreign intrusion enhanced his popular image, and emphasized his intentions to govern Sonora inde- pendent of the will of the central government. It also was evident that Sonorans were determined to exploit their own land and would resist all outside encroachments. This would be the mood of Sonorans for the remainder of the Pesqueira years: the governor jealously guarding his state's autonomy, while the central government maintained a most tenuous control.

The beginning of 1 860 found Sonora again plagued with Indian problems. Garcia Morales again was ordered to campaign against the Yaquis and Mayos and plans again were made to end the Apache depredations. When the Yaquis defeated the state troops at Potam in the Yaqui Valley, Pesqueira hastened to support his forces, but on Septem- ber 2, he was overwhelmed at Las Guasimas. The governor almost lost

33Alden to Cass, Guaymas, November 18, 21, 1859; Thomas Robinson to Alden, Guaymas, November 20, 1859, Dispatches from Guaymas. 34 By this treaty the United States would receive a perpetual right of transit across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, could send troops into Mexico to protect American property, and would pay four million dollars (2 million to settle American claims) to the Liberal government. In Mexico the treaty was regarded as a sacrifice of national sovereignty. Henry B. Parkes, A History of Mexico (2nd ed., Boston, 1960), 247.

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his life when his horse was shot from under him; he was saved only by the action of his adjutant, Jose Montijo, who pulled him up on his own horse and raced away from the danger. Pesqueira retreated to Hermosillo.35

Before he could subdue the Indians, another internal revolt occurred. On September 28 Captain Hilario Gabilondo, commandant of the presidio of Santa Cruz, announced the Plan of Magdalena. This

plan criticized Pesqueira's administration of Sonora and named Remigio Rivera, a Conservative, to be provisional governor. The uprising reached

alarming proportions; Rivera found himself at the head of a force of

nearly 2,000 men, mostly Yaquis. Former partisans of Gandara also

joined the revolt. With a sizable army he marched on Hermosillo. Here Rivera sacrificed conquest to perform an act of unselfish patriotism. He knew victory would leave this city of 20,000 inhabitants at the mercy of the Yaquis, who were anxious to plunder, so he purposely delayed the attack until Pesqueira's forces arrived. The state army defeated Rivera at El Buey and he fled to Arizona.36

The Gabilondo revolt indicated a growing disillusionment with.

Pesqueira. This was especially true in Alamos, where citizens complained that the governor considered them "an inexhaustible source of income" and condemned his heavy taxation policies. Pesqueira was aware of the

discontent, and sought avenues to bolster the state economy. In Decem- ber of i860 he convened the state legislature, which had not met §ince

July of 1858, and announced a series of measures designed to bring prosperity. He indicated that an American-Mexican railroad company desired to build a line from the United States across Chihuahua and Sonora to the coast. The mint at Hermosillo had been instructed to coin

copper money at its face value to replace money in circulation. He also

granted to American businessmen a right of transit between the southern Arizona mines and Guaymas, hoping thereby to profit from the shipment of ore and supplies.

In January of 186 1 Benito Juarez reentered Mexico City, signaling the end of the War of Reform. The Liberals had successfully driven out the Conservatives, and Mexico was now ready for civilian rule. On

February 1 3 Governor Pesqueira proclaimed an end to wartime measures and returned Sonora to civil rule under the Constitution of 1857. These

35 Corral, Obras Historicas, 38; Villa, Historia de Sonora, 274.

**La Estrella de Occidente, October 26, 1860.

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actions climaxed his first term in office. His defense of the federal consti- tution made him a hero of the War of the Reform. With his promise to end forced levies and overhaul his fiscal program, a grateful public on

June 8 re-elected him to a second term of office. Sonora entered the tur- bulent 1 860s with a leader of tried administrative abilities.

The Conservatives continued to agitate. The Plan of Tacubaya was resurrected in El Fuerte, Sinaloa, and on August 19, 1861, Colonel Antonio Esteves crossed the border with two hundred men and seized Alamos. He made forced loans of 30,000 pesos and recruited supporters among the influential conservative and clerical elements. Most impor- tant of these were the Almadas: Jose Maria Tranquilino, and his

brothers, Toribio and Vicente, who were given the rank of captain in Esteves' forces. The rebels also recruited soldiers among the Yaqui and and Mayo tribes, and marched into the interior. At Hermosillo, on October 23 Pesqueira met and routed Esteves' forces, taking one hundred

prisoners and ten cannons. Vicente Almada was killed in the battle, and Esteves and Toribio Almada fled to Chihuahua. Pesqueira continued on to Alamos, ordering his cavalry to scour the countryside for rebels.

By November 24 the- leaders had been hunted down, captured, and delivered to him. Pesqueira showed an unexpected lack of mercy which shocked even his closest friends when he sentenced Toribio Almada to die. In Alamos the Almadas stood next to God. Liberals and Conserva- tives alike believed that "a wrong choice did not warrant capital pun- ishment."37

The agony of Toribio's execution would never be forgotten. His mother and his young wife, Nelita, tried again and again to gain access to Pesqueira, who ordered his soldiers to sound horns and beat drums to drown out the crying and pleading before his windows. As the execu- tion neared a large crowd gathered and Pesqueira feared rioting. Toribio and another condemned man were taken from the jail early in the morn-

ing and hurried to the cemetery for their execution. His wife ran crying after the death carriage with her recently born child in her arms. Silence

reigned in the streets. Windows and doors were shuttered, and the whole town was in mourning. For years to come this scene would haunt Pes-

queira. The wounds inflicted by the execution were too deep to heal, for

87 Villa, Historia de Sonora, 275; Almada, Diccionario, 577; Corral, Obras HisUkicas, 41; Miles, Almada of Alamos, 1 3-14, 27-30.

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all the drums that Pesqueira could muster would not drown out the cries of Toribio's young wife nor the Almada family's vengeful vows.88

There was no rest for the Mexican nation during this period. In

July of 1 86 1 President Juarez had stopped payment on all foreign loans in an effort to curb the drain of money badly needed to stabilize his

country. Early in 1862 France, England and Spain landed forces in Mexico in an attempt to collect claims which allegedly were owed to them. England and Spain soon left, but the French remained, planning to extend their influence to Mexico. In May Mexican forces clashed with a French army at Puebla. This incident marked the beginning of French intervention in Mexico.

Pesqueira's attention at this time was turned toward the northern frontier. In the United States, a civil war had erupted, and all the American troops had been removed from the border country. The

Apaches were roaming unchecked, spreading death and destruction. Also disturbing was the Confederate invasion of New Mexico. In the

spring of 1862 a Confederate emissary, Colonel John Reily, arrived in Hermosillo from Arizona, seeking an audience with Pesqueira. He wanted permission to purchase supplies in Sonora and establish a mili-

tary depot at Guaymas. Pesqueira was polite but firm in refusing to

cooperate with the Confederates.39

Pesqueira rallied Sonorans to aid Juarez in fighting the French. In

June of 1862 he dispatched Colonel Garcia Morales to Sinaloa with a battalion of five hundred men, and a month later instructed Colonel Gabriel Corella to follow with another force of equal size. In Sinaloa the Sonorans were to join the local forces and move toward the interior. But at this point, Pesqueira's fortunes took a downward course. At the rendezvous at Mazatlan, a majority of the Sonoran troops and their officers deserted. The incident shocked Pesqueira. The reasons for the desertion were unknown; however, the soldiers probably had been forc-

ibly recruited and were reluctant to fight a war that did not affect them. There also was little sense of obligation to a central government which

38 Corral, Obras Histdricas, 42; Miles, Almada of Alamos, 26, 29-30. This action secured the everlasting enmity of many of the richest families in Sonora, and cost Pesqueira dearly during the French intervention when many joined the French to revenge Torihio.

39H. H. Sibley to Pesqueira, Fort Bliss, Texas, December 16, 1861, Dispatches from

Guaymas. Villa, Historia de Sonora, 280; Corral, Obras Histdricas, 45; Calvo Berber, Nociones de Historia, 222. Martin H. Hall, "Colonel James Reily's Diplomatic Missions to Chihuahua and Sonora," New Mexico Historical Review, XXXI (July 1956), 232-42.

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was so distant and offered so little protection. Despite this setback, Sonor- ans continued to have faith in their caudillo. In September of 1863, Pesqueira was re-elected to another term as governor by a majority vote.40

By the spring of 1 864 the Imperialist forces - the French and their Mexican allies - had conquered Central Mexico and Maximilian of

Hapsburg had been made a puppet ruler. As Juarez had sought refuge in Chihuahua, French attention was turned to the northern states.

Napoleon III was especially interested in the mines in Sonora. Manuel Gandara also had been active at the court of Maximilian, trying to pro- mote an invasion of Sonora. In July the French frigate D'Assac arrived in Guaymas, carrying Pablo de Fourniel, a former resident of that port, who came to urge Pesqueira to join the Imperialists. However, Pesqueira remained loyal to the constitution and assured Fourniel that Sonorans would "have the glory of fighting for our country in perpetual opposition to the figurehead empire. . . ."41

The early part of 1865 saw the Imperialist forces under General Armand de Castagny moving up the west coast of Mexico. Mazatlan and most of the towns in Sinaloa fell easily. The state troops were no match for the well-disciplined, seasoned French troops with their superior arms. An all-out assault to drive Juarez out of Mexico was under way. De Castagny planned to move into Sonora to keep Juarez from escaping through that route, while Colonel Agustin Henry Brencourt was to invade Chihuahua. On February 16 General de Castagny wrote to General Francois Achille Bazaine from Mazatlan. He complained about the attitude of the people and related rumors that the United States was

projecting the annexation of Baja California, Sonora, and Sinaloa. He then described his planned invasion of Sonora - stating that he did not

40Calvo Berber, Nociones de Historia, 233-34; Archivo del Congreso de Sonora, September 26, 1863, Box 27, Expediente 860, in Pesqueira (ed.), "Documentos," Cuarta Serie, TomoIII.

41Genaro Garcia (ed.), Cohccion de Documentos Ineditos o muy Raros Para la Historia de Mexico - La Intervention Francesa en Mexico Segun el Archivo del Mariscal Bazaine (Mexico: Libreria de la Vda. de Ch. Bouret, 1908-1910), Segunda Parte, Tomo XVII, doc. xxi, 75; Pablo de Fourniel to Pesqueira, Guaymas, July 9, 1864, C-XIX; Pesqueira to Fourniel, Ures, July 11, 1864, C-XXI, in Pesqueira (ed.), "Documentos," Tercera Serie, Tomo IX.

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expect much resistance, for the governor was a weak man and a drunkard.42

The French invasion of Sonora began in mid-March when four

ships arrived at Guaymas with a contingent of 1 ,200 veteran troops under de Castagny. Pesqueira had collected 3,000 men and was near the port when the French disembarked. However, he realized that it would be useless to resist, and withdrew to La Pasion, eighteen miles away. In

preparing his defenses, Pesqueira was grossly negligent. In May his army was surprised by a small contingent of French cavalry and foot soldiers. Under fire, the Sonorans panicked and ran. Pesqueira escaped - and with the remnant of his army retreated to Hermosillo.43

After the skirmish at La Pasion, a coalition of clericals, Gandaristas and enemies of Pesqueira joined the Imperialists. Heartened by this action, General de Castagny issued a bold proclamation:

Sonorans! I come to protect you, but if you refuse my protection I shall invade your cities, I shall offend the honor of your wives and your daugh- ters, and I shall deliver you to certain death, such as I have finished in Sinaloa.

The clericals incited the Indians. Foremost among the Indian allies was

Refugio Tanori, who rallied the Pimas and the Opatas to the banners of Maximilian. On June 10 Francisco Gandara, Manuel's brother, attacked Ures but was repelled; at the same time, French Colonel Isidoro Teodulo Gamier marched to attack Pesqueira at Hermosillo. Gamier knew the weakness of the governor's position and vowed to exterminate him. But

Pesqueira did not indulge in heroics and retreated to Ures.44

42 Jack Autry Dabbs, The French Army in Mexico, 1861-1867 (The Hague: Mouton and

Company, 1963), 99-100; Percy F. Martin, Maximilian in Mexico (London: Constable and Company, Ltd., 1914), 206; Armand de Castagny to Francois - Achille Bazaine, Mazatlan, February 16, 1865, in Garcia (ed.) Coleccidn de Documentos lneditos, Segunda Parte, Tomo XXIV, 228-35, doc. Hi. 43 Albert F. Pradeau, "History of Guaymas," an unpublished manuscript, 43, reports an interview with a veteran from La Pasion, Juan Orci, who claimed that the ammunition was old and defective; when the French attacked, the guns would not fire.

44 De Castagny to Sonorans, Ures, April 14, 1865, in Ignacio Ramirez, Obras de lgnacio Ramirez (Mexico: Oficina Tipografia de la Secretaria de Fomento, 1889), 281-84.

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Forced to evacuate Ures, Pesqueira continued retreating north- ward. This flight, plus the death of his young son, Manuel, at Arizpe, completely demoralized the governor. He disbanded his army at the hacienda of La Conception and went to Cananea, where in August he handed over the governorship and command of the resistance to General Jesus Garcia Morales, his brother-in-law. Crossing into Arizona, Pes-

queira settled in the Calabasas area with his family. Here he was stricken with enteritis and was bedridden for many weeks. On October 25 his wife, Ramona Garcia Morales de Pesqueira, died at nearby Fort Mason.

In Sonora a reign of terror ensued. The Conservatives persecuted the Liberal families in Arizpe and Matape, and took many of them to Ures where a great number perished from hunger. The Imperialists declared martial law and divided the state into four districts - Altar, Arizpe, Hermosillo, and Alamos. Among Pesqueira's enemies who joined the invaders was Jose Maria Tranquilino (El Chato) Almada, brother of Toribio, who was placed over the District of Alamos. Yaqui and Mayo Indians, along with many other Sonoran Indian tribes, enlisted under the Imperialist banner. Overwhelmed and forced to retreat from the main centers of population, the followers of Pesqueira turned to guerrilla tactics.

The outstanding figure of Sonoran resistance was General Garcia Morales. From the beginning of his career, this officer had been Pes- queira's foremost supporter and right arm. With a small band of guer- rillas he now began striking Imperialist strongholds. Atrocities on both sides occurred, and the Imperialist newspapers denounced Garcia Morales and branded him an outlaw. From time to time, other patriots carried on the fight. One of these was General Antonio Rosales, a former governor of Sinaloa, who crossed the border and took Alamos. This endeavor proved useless, for Almada counterattacked and Rosales lost his life fighting in the streets of Alamos. Republican fortunes slipped to the critical point. The unorganized bands of the patriots were no match for the French-led Imperialists. Unlike the ranchers in other states, those in Sonora stood aloof from the fray. Most of them had a good supply of arms, horses and vaqueros, but they supported the Conserva- tive element in the state, many being former partisans of Gandara.45

45Torre Villar, "Las Notas Sobre Sonora," YAN, I, 54, 56, 59; Villa, Historia de Sonora, 287; Miles, Almada of Alamos, 175-76.

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Early in 1 866 the tide changed. The United States had ended its civil war and began exerting pressure on France to evacuate its forces from Mexico. The rise of Prussia in Europe also forced Napoleon HI to turn his attention to the Continent. January saw the appearance of the man who would contribute greatly to ousting the Imperialists from Sonora - General Angel Martinez of Sinaloa. Born in Jalisco, Martinez

joined the army at an early age, was quickly promoted, and although only twenty-eight years old and illiterate had gained the rank of general by 1865. Bent on plunder Martinez and his macheteros armed with sharp machetes swept from Sinaloa into Sonora with the ferocity of Attila the

Hun, murdering and plundering as they rode. By February Martinez defeated the armies of Almada and was controlling the entire District of Alamos. He openly encouraged Pesqueira to return and rally his former

supporters.46 From Tubac, Pesqueira viewed these developments with great

interest. In February he received a petition from Garcia Morales and his officers asking that he resume command of the Sonoran troops, and a month later the caudillo arrived at Bronces, near Arizpe, and accepted the leadership of a guerrilla band which had been under Major Bernardo

Zuniga. By April at Buenavista, Pesqueira had resumed the offices of

governor and commanding general of the state, and with three hundred men marched to Alamos. Encouraged by Pesqueira's return, Martinez increased his activities in the south, and Garcia Morales captured Magdalena.47

In May Pesqueira, Martinez, and Garcia Morales established their

headquarters at San Marcial. Maximilian's forces already were losing ground, although the French still held Sahuaripa, Moctezuma, Arizpe, Guaymas, Altar, Ures, and part of the district of Hermosillo. Pesqueira concentrated on the capture of Hermosillo, the commercial center of the

state, which was guarded by a small group of French Legionnaires and several hundred allies. Martinez began raiding and disrupting communi- cations around Hermosillo, and in mid-August he captured the city, but was forced to withdraw before the month ended. Pesqueira then marched on Ures, but the Swedish soldier of fortune, General Emilio Lamberg,

46 Martinez hated the French, and later joined the Prussians to fight France. Miles, Almada of Alamos, 177-78; Dabhs, French Army in Mexico, 100.

47 Corral, Ohras Historicas, 55.

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made brilliant use of his French cavalry, and routed the Sonoran army. Pesqueira fell back to San Marcial, and reorganized his troops. The

skirmishing continued.48 The climax came in early September at the Battle of Guadalupe

near Ures. Martinez moved his forces on the city, which was being defended by General Lamberg, and on September 4 broke through the enemy line of defense at the pueblo of Guadalupe. The Imperialists fled the battlefield leaving behind the corpse of their dead leader. Pesqueira entered Ures, and captured and executed many of the Imperialist leaders.

Martinez pursued the retreating Imperialists to Guaymas, but arrived too late to prevent them from joining the French garrison which embarked on September 14. With the Imperialist resistance broken, Pesqueira proceeded to neutralize the remaining Indian opposition. Sonoran adherents of the Maximilian government began to flee the state. Among those captured were Jose "El Chato" Almada and Refugio Tanori, who were seized on a French schooner. Almada was killed on the spot, but Tanori was brought to Guaymas and executed. On June 1 9, 1867, the Imperialist threat ended in Mexico with the execution of Emperor Maximilian. Stability, however, was difficult to achieve. Years of anarchy had weakened the powers of the central government, and the regional caudillos remained rebellious and arbitrary in their states.49

Pesqueira was again in control of Sonora's destiny. His main tasks were to impose order and reconstruct his bankrupt state. He needed money to accomplish a reconstruction program, but industry and com- merce were paralyzed and Sonorans could spare none. Compounding the money shortage was its fluctuation in value. Also, many of the coins in circulation were counterfeit. With specie worth only thirty-seven per cent of face value, Pesqueira attempted to impose remedial measures by limiting the circulation and halting the minting of the metal. But these steps proved ineffective. Sonora was too far gone for such measures;

4Slbid., 57-59. Born in Sweden in 1815, Lamberg came to Mexico in 1838, served in Santa Anna's army, and participated in a number of revolts before seconding the Plan of Ayutla. He rose to the rank of general, then switched in 1864 to the Imperialist side. Almada, Diccionario, 424-25, spells his name Langberg. 49 B. R. Carman to William H. Seward, Mazatlan, October 1, 1866, Dispatches from Mazatlan, mentions the French pullout. Angel Martinez to Pesqueira, September 24, 1866, in La Estrella de Occidente, September 28, 1866, relates the death of the Imperialist leaders.

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for economic recovery it needed massive monetary assistance from outside sources. There also were oppressive interior duties charged within Sonora itself, the highways were plagued by robbers, and citizens were required to carry passports. Attempts were made to eliminate the barriers to inter- nal trade and travel, but the measures were ignored.50

During this period, Pesqueira ruled Sonora with an iron hand. He

regularly appropriated the duties of the federal customhouse at Guaymas to support the state government. In August of 1867, when government authorities reasserted control of the customs, Pesqueira vehemently op- posed the interference, declaring that the money was essential for operat- ing the state and carrying on the Indian wars, and dismissed the collector. On September 27 Pesqueira scheduled local elections and announced that he would not be a candidate for re-election. Almost immediately a "draft Pesqueira" campaign was mounted by friends headed by his staunchest supporter, Jesus Garcia Morales, who claimed that Sonora needed a man of Pesqueira's proven leadership. The governor dramati-

cally yielded to this pressure, announcing that he would sacrifice his wishes and continue to serve his people. On December 1, 1867, the caudillo was re-elected for another term.51

Although Pesqueira was unwilling to part with the governorship, he no longer was willing to devote himself to administrative responsibili- ties. He began spending long periods at his hacienda, and governed Sonora through his cronies. As time passed forces encouraging democ-

racy developed within the state, and for the first time a genuine opposi- tion appeared in the legislature. The Indian problem persisted. In late

1867 the Yaquis revolted, joined forces with their cousins, the Mayos, and began attacking military garrisons, ranches, and pueblos. Sonoran forces under Colonel Prospero Salazar Bustamente savagely pursued the Indians, and at Bacum in February of 1868 broke the Indian resist-

so La Estrella de Occidente, May 24, June 7, 21, 27-28, July 12, 1867; Ramirez, Obras, II, 28; Conner to Seward, November [?], 1866, Dispatches from Guaymas; A. F. Pradeau, The Mexican Mints of Alamos and Hermosillo (New York: The American Numismatic Society, 1934), 39; Corral, Obras Historicas, 69.

51El Impartial, quoted in Alphonse Pinart, Prints: A Collection of Mexican Documents

showing the history and development of the Northern Mexican States during the period 1824-1878, Document 1172. La Estrella de Occidente, March 15, August 30, October 4, 1867. Corral, Obras Historicas, 70-71.

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ance and brought peace. To the north, Apache raids from the United States increased, and Sonorans desperately appealed to the central gov- ernment for assistance, but no help was forthcoming. During these years Sonora was known as the "great Apache rancho."52

Other problems loomed, also. In the late 1 860s Sonoran relations with the United States worsened. The old fear of annexation, complaints of Americans wanting special privileges and relief from taxes, and fric- tion between Anglo and Mexican residents on the border rankled. In 1 868 a catastrophe occurred. In October of that year a rainstorm struck the southern part of the state, destroying large sections of Alamos. The

damage ran over a million and a half dollars. When Ignacio Pesqueira began his fourth term in office on December 1, 1869, the problems that

plagued Sonora for decades were still present. However, in the early 1 870s the central government began to take an interest in its northwest- ern frontier, and sent troops to fight the Apaches. Instead of welcoming this aid, Sonoran officials complained that they wanted money from Mexico City, not troops, and reasserted a determination to retain local control.53

The Sonorans were fighting a losing battle. Population continued to decline as many emigrated to Arizona and California. In 1 849 there

52Enriaueta de Parodi, Sonora: Homhres y Paisajes (Mexico: Editorial Pafim, 1941), 217. The following is the governor's record during his twenty years in office:

Substitute Governor 8- 9-56 to 5- 6-57 I. Pesqueira Constitutional Governor 5- 7-57 to 8-27-57 J. deAguilar Constitutional Governor 8-28-57 to 4- 7-61 I. Pesqueira Interim Governor 4- 8-61 to 6- 7-61 J. Escalante Moreno Constitutional Governor 6- 8-61 to 8-10-65 I. Pesqueira Governor and Commandant 8-11-65 to 3-17-66 Garcia Morales Constitutional Governor 3-18-66 to 6-10-68 I. Pesqueira Substitute Governor 6-11-68 to 12-31-69 M. Monteverde Constitutional Governor 1-10-69 to 7-27-69 I. Pesqueira Substitute Governor 7-28-69 to 10- 8-69 M. Monteverde Constitutional Governor 10- 9-69 to 12-12-69 I. Pesqueira Substitute Governor 12-13-69 to 6-12-70 M. Monteverde Constitutional Governor 6-13-70 to 1-23-72 I. Pesqueira Interim Governor 1-27-72 to 2-28-72 J.Astiazaran Constitutional Governor 2-10-72 to 2-28-72 I. Pesqueira Interim Governor 3-10-72 to 9-23-73 J. Astiazardn Constitutional Governor 9-16-73 to 8-31-75 I. Pesqueira Constitutional Governor 9-10-75 to 4- 2-76 J. Pesqueira

Corral, Obras Histdricas, 71, 74-75; Almada, Diccionario, 240-41, 454-55; La Estrella de Occidente, January 31, February issues, March 8, 28, May 15, June 12, 1868; Calvo Berber, Nociones de Historia, 235; Villa, Historia de Sonora, 306. 53 La Estrella de Occidente, March 28, 1868; Corral, Obras Historicas, 80; Alexander Willard to William Hunter, Guaymas, June 30, September 30, October 1, 28, 1871, Dispatches from Guaymas. Hermosillo El Eco de Sonora, January 9, 1871.

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were an estimated 1 50,000 Sonorans; in 1861 the number was 133,300; and in 1 870 the number had fallen to 1 08,2 1 1 . Sonora simply was not a safe place to live. Furthermore, the state was isolated geographically from the rest of the nation, which affected its trade and communication. There were excessive federal export and import taxes, and ever-mounting state taxes. The only hope was increased trade with California and Arizona.

Guaymas was the natural outlet for the latter, but border tensions pre- vented this. At the same time Pesqueira's increasing neglect of the state affairs made conditions worse and alienated former supporters.54

Mounting opposition to Pesqueira was evident during the election of 1 87 1. The governor again chose to run, but this time he was opposed by his brother-in-law, Jesus Garcia Morales. A breach had developed in January of 1 868 between the two when Garcia Morales resigned his office as deputy governor to be federal commander in Sonora. Pesqueira expected the officer to remain loyal to him, but Garcia Morales believed his primary obligation was to the central government. When he accepted the federal post, the governor interpreted it as disloyalty. But opposition was futile, for Pesqueira controlled the ballot boxes. When the votes were counted, he again had been elected, and on September 15 was installed as governor.

At the national level, opposition to President Benito Juarez was

growing. When Juarez ran for a fourth term in 1871, General Porfirio Diaz of Oaxaca, one of the strongest regional caudillos, challenged him. In November at La Noria, Diaz revolted, declaring himself in favor of the Constitution of 1857. By the spring of 1872 the revolt had been crushed. Diaz fled to Nayarit where he received protection from Manuel

Lozada, an old Indian cacique who ruled that state independently of Mexico City. Diaz' pronouncement inspired uprisings in Sinaloa and Sonora.

In Sonora a group of Porfiristas led by Jesus Leyva, the battalion commander in Guaymas, revolted against Pesqueira and forced the local merchants to hand over 15,000 pesos; he then attacked Alamos and collected 35,000 pesos. This threat prompted Pesqueira to hurry to

Hermosillo, where he conscripted an army of 1 ,000 men and marched to meet Leyva. At Potrerito Seco, between the towns of Bacanora and

54Willard to State Department, Guaymas, September 30, 1871, Dispatches from Guaymas; El Eco de Sonora, March 6, April 17, 1871; "La Guerra de Barbaros en Sonora," in La Estrella de Occidente, October 20, 1871.

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Arivechi, he surprised the Porfiristas, killing seventeen and taking about one hundred prisoners. He executed Leyva and other rebel leaders and sent the remaining officers to the Presidio of Fronteras to fight the

Apaches. The remainder of the rebel soldiers were incorporated into his ranks.55

When the Porfiristas seized parts of Sinaloa, a call was sent to

Pesqueira for help. The Sonoran caudillo responded immediately, per- haps believing that another triumph would restore his waning popular- ity. General Manuel Marquez de Leon, the leader of the Sinaloan Por- firistas, marched to the Villa of Sinaloa to meet the invading Sonoran

army. Pesqueira arrived late in January of 1872, and laid siege to the

place. Marquez defended the town from the rooftops of the adobe houses. When Pesqueira was gaining the initiative, the conscripted Leyva sol- diers suddenly deserted, firing on their fellow Sonorans. The battle turned into a mass of confusion with Pesqueira retreating north to Alamos. It was a humiliating hour. In Alamos he recruited more "vol- unteers," and prepared to return to Sinaloa.56

In March Pesqueira re-entered Sinaloa with a force of over 1 ,000 men, intent on capturing the capital at Culiacan. The action resembled comic-opera, with neither Pesqueira nor Marquez wanting to strike the first blow. This stalemate lasted for nearly two months and was finally broken when General Sostenses Rocha arrived in Sinaloa with 2,000 government soldiers. Marquez, fearing that he would be caught in the middle, abandoned the city and fled. Pesqueira felt humiliated when Rocha failed to recognize his contribution to Sinaloa's liberation. In 1 859 Pesqueira had dictated who was to be the governor of Sinaloa; but Rocha now ignored his recommendations. Unaccustomed to being ignored, the caudillo left Sinaloa in a huff for Ures, vehemently protest- ing to Mexico City.57

The central government extended its influence into the western states. Soldiers were sent to regain control over the customhouse at Guaymas. In the past Pesqueira had arbitrarily used the customs, and

55 Corral, Ohras Historicas, 86-90; Villa, Historia de Sonora, 313; Bancroft, North Mexican States, II, 701; La Estrella de Occidente, November 10, December 15, 1871; Willard to Hunter, Guaymas, November 6, 1871, Dispatches from Guaymas. 56Buelna, Historia de Sinaloa, 132; Pesqueira to the Substitute Governor of Sonora, Sinaloa, January 22, 1872, in La Estrella de Occidente, February 2, 1872; ibid., Februarv 23, 1872. 57 Corral, Obras Historicas, 99-100.

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when federal officials protested, he put them into jail. During the tense

days following the Diaz revolt, the central government had avoided a

confrontation, but by October of 1872 the crisis had passed and the Minister of War sent Colonel Jose Maria Rangel with two hundred men to restore the federal employees to their jobs and protect the custom- house. Pesqueira publicly criticized the Minister and protested the action, but did nothing. Through the Sonoran legislature he sent a note to the Mexican congress, asking that no more troops be sent to Sonora.58

The Sonoran legislature now became more restless. On November

1, 1872, the deputies decided to implement the reforms passed in May of 1 869, but tabled for a later date. The most controversial of these was a no re-election clause. Pesqueira regarded it as a challenge to his authority, and openly condemned the deputies. A heated debate in Sonoran news-

papers followed with recriminations hurled by both sides. Pesqueirista newspapers charged that opposition deputies were undemocratic because

they were attempting to limit the liberty of the people to choose their own governor. Tired of the debate, Pesqueira dissolved the legislature and in April of 1873 packed it with his cronies, who drew up another constitution which contained all the reforms in the 1872 document,

except the no re-election clause. Those opposing him severely criticized

Pesqueira for subverting the constitution which at one time he had so

vigorously defended. They also questioned some of his financial arrange- ments, particularly the contract he had granted to an American named

James Eldredge to build a railroad in Sonora. The terms were so liberal that Pesqueira was accused of selling out to the gringos.50

When Pesqueira announced for re-election in 1 873, Carlos Conant, on September 19 at Mineral de Promontorios, in the District of Alamos, declared the Reform Constitution of November 1, 1872, in effect. He then launched a revolution designed to replace Pesqueira, relying prin- cipally on support in Alamos, particularly from such distinguished citizens as Ramon Corral and others. However, other sectors of the state

s*lbid., 91-92; La Estrella de Occidente, February 23, March 1, 1872. Willard to Hunter, Guaymas, February 23, 1872; A. F. Garrison to Hamilton Fish, Guaymas, September 30, 1873, Dispatches from Guaymas.

59Ignacio B. del Castillo, Biografia de D. Ramdn Corral (Mexico: Imprenta Dirigida por Juan Aguilar Vera, 1910), 12; La Estrella de Occidente, June 7, December 27, 1872; "La Cuestion Reforma," ibid, January 3, 1873; Juan Atunez to Pesqueira, Ures, November 27, 1872, in Pesqueira (ed.), "Documentos," Primera Serie, Tomo IX; Calvo Berber, N octanes de Historia, 241-42; Corral, Obras Historicas, 101-103; Ures El Mochueh, August 15, 1873.

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did not follow suit. Requesting extraordinary powers from the legisla- ture, Pesqueira sent Soldiers to Alamos and easily smothered the revolt.60

Economic depression continued to plague Sonora. The mines received little protection against marauding Indians and were heavily taxed. Less than a million pesos were minted in the year 1873. Only about one-fourth of the arable land was under cultivation. Pesqueira's attempts to revive the economy were inept. However, in spite of these

problems, there were indications that a break was in sight. North of the border in Arizona and New Mexico, General George Crook, a veteran Indian fighter, stepped up operations in an effort to concentrate the

Apaches on a reservation in Arizona. He even suggested that Pesqueira build forts along the border to stop Apache inroads. The plan never materialized.61

Sonorans were tiring of the old caudillo. More and more merchants

complained of increased taxation and lack of security. Alamos, Guaymas, Hermosillo, and Ures all expressed dissatisfaction. Groups that had at one time supported him were now his severest critics. The central gov- ernment also was extending its influence into Sonora. Additional federal

troops were sent to fight the Apaches. In 1875 with Sonorans loudly protesting Pesqueira's running for another term, he wisely chose his cousin, Jose Pesqueira, to run for governor. General Jesus Garcia Morales opposed Jose Pesqueira. The campaign was noted for its bitter- ness, especially in the press. Jose Pesqueira won, but only after the votes of Altar, Alamos, and Arizpe were nullified by Pesqueira's puppets in the state legislature. This treachery robbed Garcia Morales of a long- desired reward for past services.62

«°La Estrella de Occidents September 26, October 3, 17, 31, 1873; Archivo Hist6rico del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo, Gaveta 18-1, 453; Pesqueira to the People, Ures, in La Estrella de Occidente, October 3, 1873; Corral, Obras Histdricas, 104-106; Yuma Arizona Sentinel, October 25, 1873. 61 Jose Maria P&ez Hernandez, Convpendio de la Geograpa del Estado de Sonora (Mexico: Tipograffa Comercio, 1872), 58-59; Annual Report, Guaymas, September 30, 1873, Dis- patches from Guaymas; Yuma Arizona Sentinel, 1873, has a good serial on Sonoran condi- tions. George Crook to Pesqueira, Camp Grant, January 9, 1873, in La Estrella de Occidente, July 4, 1873; ibid., December 5, 1873. 62 Corral, Obras Histdricas, 106, 116-19; Archivo Hist6rico del Estado de Sonora, Hermo- sillo, Gaveta 18-2, 460; "Contribuci6n Directa," in Alamos El Elector, February 24, 1874.

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Charging that the election was fraudulent, Francisco Sema, a customs collector at the Port of Libertad, pronounced the Plan of Altar,

listing Pesqueira's abuses, and led a revolt. He asked Mexican President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada to void the Sonoran elections and appoint an interim governor until new elections would be held. In mid-August the towns of Altar, San Ignacio, and Santa Ana seconded Serna, as did the Yaquis and the Mayos. But when the rebels moved to put the plan into effect, Francisco Altamirano, commanding in that district, defeated them at Altar on August 23. Serna fled to Arizona.68

In Tucson Serna bought arms and organized an army, and on November 8 crossed into Sonora. The entire state was soon engulfed in civil war. Pesqueira was forced to leave Las Delicias and join the fight. Entire populations aided and abetted the rebels. Jose and Ignacio Pes-

queira countered with a very vigorous campaign, and by the end of the

year, the rebel number had dwindled to less than six hundred. With the state paralyzed, Yaqui and Mayo Indians, led by the famous Cajeme, took advantage of the chaos and swept the Sonoran garrisons out of their

valleys, and compromised the effectiveness of the state militia. The

operations by Ignacio Pesqueira were noted for their intensity; he perse- cuted, jailed, and confiscated property. He was so severe in the city of

Hermosillo, that many residents fled to Guaymas where federal authori- ties under Garcia Morales and Colonel Rangel gave them aid and comfort. In the Alamos district, the rebels, led by Lorenzo Torres, defied the state troops.64

Governor Jose Pesqueira petitioned the central government for assistance. In response to this call, General Vicente Mariscal landed at

Guaymas in March of 1 876, and issued an order for all fighting to cease.

Pesqueira believed that the officer would automatically back his govern- ment. Mariscal, however, met with rebel leaders in his travels from

Guaymas to Alamos. At Alamos he conferred with Jose Pesqueira, and

requested both sides to meet with him. Pesqueira refused, and denounc-

63Tucson Arizona Citizen, July 24, 1875; Corral, Obras Hisuhicas, 120-23; La Estrella de Occidente, August 27, September 3, 4, 1875.

«4Corral, Obras Histdricas, 122, 125-29; Tucson Arizona Citizen, January 15, 1876; La Estrella de Occidente, January 28, February 18, 1876.

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ing Mariscal's action, left Alamos. On March 14 Mariscal declared Sonora under martial law, and assumed political and military control.65

Fearing treachery by the Pesqueiras, General Mariscal incorporated Torres and his rebels into his own force. When Torres entered Alamos, the people lined the streets and threw flowers at him. Mariscal saw at first hand the popularity of the rebel cause. Mariscal then requested Serna to meet him in Hermosillo. Serna arrived in the city before Mariscal, and received a reception equal to that given Torres in Alamos.

Winning the cooperation of Serna, Mariscal proclaimed a general amnesty and a tenuous peace followed. Ignacio Pesqueira returned to Las Delicias to await an opportunity to depose the rebels.

Events in Mexico City brought a change in power which em- boldened the Pesqueiras to attempt a comeback. Lerdo de Tejada was re-elected for another term, but in October of 1 876, Porfirio Diaz revolted

again and two months later was president of Mexico. Jose Pesqueira rushed to Las Delicias, conferred with Ignacio, and sent a communique to Mariscal. Because of the change in government, he said, MariscaFs commission had expired and the executive power had reverted to him. He demanded that Mariscal recognize his legitimacy. On December 19 Jose Pesqueira declared Mariscal's claim to governorship null and void and himself governor. Mariscal denied Pesqueira's allegations and pre- pared to resist. Ignacio and Jose Pesqueira left Las Delicias in search of

supporters, but this proved to be a disappointing mission. Many friends were too old to help while others were tired of war and refused to join him. Nevertheless, on January 25, 1877, with a small force, Ignacio attacked Ures. Mariscal repelled the attack, and Pesqueira retreated to Janos, Chihuahua. Six months later Mariscal was elected governor of Sonora.66

Pesqueira was still not ready to retire, and rode all the way from Chihuahua to Mexico City. There he met President Diaz, whom he had previously opposed. Now, however, the cunning old Sonoran caudillo

65 Corral, Obras Historicas, 130-34; Calvo Berber, Nociones de Historia, 244; "Noticias de Alamos/1 Guaymas Garantias Individuates, March 18, 1876. 66 Corral, Obras Historicas, 136-37; Vicente Mariscal to Jos£ Pesqueira, Las Delicias, Decem- ber 31, 1876, in Alamos Boletin Oficial, January 5, 1877; Patrick) Nicoli, El Estado de Sonora: Yaquis y Mayos (2nd ed., Mexico: Imprenta de Francisco Diaz de Leon, 1885), 7.

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was at his best, for he convinced Diaz that he had been faithful to him while Mariscal was the renegade. Diaz sent General Epitacio Huerta with a contingent of federal troops to assume the post of Mexican mili-

tary commander in Sonora. Pesqueira accompanied the group.67 Pesqueira and Huerta sailed on the warship Mexico, and landed in

Guaymas in mid-July of 1 877. Word immediately spread that Pesqueira was back and had the support of the Diaz government. At Guaymas old friends met him, ready to rally to his banner; but antagonists met him

also, girding to oppose him. Traveling with the government troops to

Hermosillo, Pesqueira received an angry reception, and the populace hurled abuses at him. In Ures the people lined the streets, demonstrating and hurling verbal insults at their former ruler. Realizing the era of the caudillo had passed in Sonora, Pesqueira wisely retired to private life.68

At fifty-seven, Ignacio Pesqueira settled at his hacienda, Las

Delicias, at Bacanuchi. He had remarried in 1 867, taking as his second wife Elena Pesqueira. A very wealthy man with vast business holdings, he spent his remaining years supervising his farms along the Sonora. River and developing his mineral holdings at Cananea. He sold his mine at Santa Elena to American investors for $350,000. Unlike other

caudillos, Pesqueira never again meddled in government affairs, although rumors were always rampant that he was conspiring to return. On

January 4, 1886, Ignacio Pesqueira died of a stroke at Las Del\cias. Public reaction was immediate, and a forgiving public remembered his

accomplishments and forgot his failures. Sonorans recalled his defense of the Constitution of 1857, his role in repelling Henry Crabb and

expelling Charles Stone, and his loyalty during the French intervention.

Pesqueira had possessed the charisma essential to win the imagination of frontier Sonorans. He was fun-loving, affable, and outgoing; he

inspired and returned intense loyalty. Above all he was described to be

67San Francisco Alta California, May 30, 1877; F. Tolentino to F. Naranjo, March 27, April [?] 1877, in Alberto Maria Carreno, Archivo del General Porprio Diaz (Mexico: Editorial "Elede," S.A., 1955), XX, 178, 264; Boletin Oficial, May 4, 1877; Corral, Obras Histdricas, 140. 68 "El Sr. General de Brigada D. Ignacio Pesqueira," in Guaymas La Prensa, July 23, August 11, 1877; Hermosillo El Club de la Reforma, April 29, 1877; Guaymas El Susurro, September 28, 1877; Francisco Serna to Diaz, Ures, September 14, 1877, in Carrefio, Archivo del General Diaz, XXVII, 103-104; Boletin Oficial, July 27, 1877; Corral, Obras Historicas, 141.

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Page 37: Ignacio Pesqueira: Sonoran Caudillo

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muy macho. To the last he wore the mask of liberalism, refusing the benefit of clergy.69

Pesqueiras death marked the end of the regional caudillos in Mexico. Diaz soon consolidated the country, ending the isolation which made it possible for frontier strongmen to rule independently. The advent of the railroad and the telegraph put Sonora in reach of federal

troops, and hastened peace. New and more efficient businessmen assumed control at the national and state levels. Prosperity was just around the corner. The era of the man on horseback came to an end in

Sonora, but Ignacio Pesqueira, Sonora's last caudillo, would be long remembered.

69Corral, Obras Hist&ricas, 144; Villa, Galena de Sonorenses, 146; Garza, "Don Ignacio Pesqueira/' in Ramirez (ed.), Revista Directorio Sonora, 20-21.

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